JUDIT SÁROSDY
TAMÁS FARCZÁDI BENCZE
ZOLTÁN POÓR
MARIANNA VADNAY

APPLIED LINGUISTICS  I    
for BA Students in English

JUDIT SÁROSDY
TAMÁS FARCZÁDI BENCZE
ZOLTÁN POÓR
MARIANNA VADNAY

APPLIED LINGUISTICS  I
for BA Students in English

BÖLCSÉSZ KONZORCIUM
2006

Chapters 12 and 13 were compiled by Marianna Vadnay.
Chapters 10 and 14 were compiled by Zoltán Poór.
All other chapters were compiled by
Judit Sárosdy and Tamás Farczádi Bencze.

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Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………….11
1. FORMER METHODS IN TEACHING ENGLISH
1.1. The Grammar Translation Method
1.2. The Direct Method
1.3. The Audio-Lingual Method
1.4. The Silent Way
1.5. Suggestopedia
1.6. Community Language Learning
1.7. Total Physical Response (TPR)
2. THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
2.1. Communication
2.2. Characteristics of communicative classes:
2.3. Defining Communicative Competence
3. PARTICIPANTS OF LEARNING PROCESS
3.1. Teacher’s roles, teaching styles
3.1.1. Controller
3.1.2. Organiser
3.1.3. Assessor
3.1.4. Prompter
3.1.5. Participant
3.1.6. Resource
3.2. Learner types
3.2.1. The Age of Learners
3.2.2. Learner differences
3.2.2.1. Neuro-linguistic programming – Revell and Norman (1997)
3.2.2.2. Multiple intelligences theory – Gardner (1983)
3.2.2.3. Learning styles according to Willing (1987)
4. CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
4.1. Classroom interaction
4.2. Classroom dynamics
4.3. Classroom arrangement – various work-forms in classes
4.3.1. Whole class grouping (Frontal/Lockstep)
4.3.2. Individualised learning
4.3.3. Pairwork
4.3.4. Groupwork
4.4. Discipline problems
4.4.1. Discipline
4.4.2. Why discipline problems occur
4.4.3. The teacher’s role in maintaining discipline
4.4.3.1. How to prevent disruptive behaviour
4.4.3.2. Dealing with the rising problems
4.4.3.3. When the problem has exploded
4.5. Classroom management techniques
4.5.1. Techniques
5. LANGUAGE SKILLS
5.1. A language teaching model
5.1.1. Input
5.1.1.1. Roughly-tuned Input
5.1.1.2. Finely-tuned Input
5.1.2. Output
5.1.2.1. Practice output
5.1.2.2. Communication output
5.2. Classification of language skills
5.2.1. Receptive Skills
5.2.1.1. Reasons for reading and listening
5.2.1.2. Sub-skills of Receptive Skills
5.2.1.3. Methodological Principles for Teaching Receptive Skills
5.2.1.3.1. The content of the texts
5.2.1.3.2. Methodological Steps of Developing Receptive Skills
5.2.2. Productive Skills
5.2.2.1. Speaking
5.2.2.2. Writing
5.2.2.3. Translation
5.2.2.4. Interpreting
6. Vocabulary
6.1. Selecting Vocabulary
6.2. What does it mean to know a word?
6.3. Active and Passive Vocabulary
6.4. Presenting Vocabulary
6.5. Using dictionaries
7. GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURES
7.1. The presentation of structures
8. PRONUNCIATION
8.1. When to teach pronunciation?
8.2. The areas of pronunciation
8.2.1. Individual sounds
8.2.2. Stress
8.2.3. Intonation
8.2.4. Connected speech and fluency
8.3. What materials to use to improve students’ pronunciation?
9. CULTURE IN TEACHING ENGLISH
9.1. The definition of culture
9.2. The domains of culture
9.3. What culture do we teach?
9.3.1. The importance of teaching achievement culture (‘big C’)
9.3.1.1. The objectives of teaching achievement culture
9.3.2. The importance of teaching behaviour culture (‘small c’)
9.3.3. The concepts belonging to the third area of culture
9.4. Why to teach culture?
9.5. Goals of teaching culture
10. VISUAL, AUDIO, AUDIO-VISUAL AND DIGITAL AIDS
10.1. Basic principles of using tools in foreign language classes
10.2. Visuals and techniques of visualisation
10.3. Audio resources and ways of audio-production
10.4. Audio-visual means of education and approaches to video-production
10.5. Information and communication technologies
11. PLANNING
11.1. General principles of course design
11.2. General principles of syllabus design
11.2.1. Planning a syllabus
11.2.2. Types of syllabuses
11.3. Short-term planning – Lesson plans
11.3.1. Pre-planning
11.3.2. The plan
11.3.3. A sample lesson plan
12. FEEDBACK AND ERROR CORRECTION
12.1. Feedback
12.2. Kinds of feedback
12.3. Error correction
12.4 Errors versus mistakes
12.4.1. Mistakes
12.4.2. Slips and attempts
12.4.3. Performance versus competence
12.4.4. Errors
12.5. Teachers’ attitude to errors
12.5.1. Interlanguage
12.6. What are the most important causes of errors?
12.6.1. Language transfer - interference
12.6.2. Intraference
12.6.3. Overgeneralization
12.6.4. Teaching-induced errors
12.7. Types of errors
12.8. Responding to oral errors
12.8.1. Accuracy
12.8.2. Indication of incorrectness
12.8.3. Ways of correction
12.8.4. Fluency
12.9. Correction of written errors
13. EVALUATION
13.1. Assessment
13.1.1 Forms of assessment
13.2. Measurement
13.3. Tests
13.4. Criteria of good tests
13.4.1. Validity
13.4.2. Reliability
13.4.2.1. Reliability of scoring
13.5. The relationship of validity and reliability
13.6. The relationship between teaching and testing
13.7. Practicality
13.8. Test types
13.8.1. Aptitude tests
13.8.2. Placement tests
13.8.3. Achievement tests
13.8.4. Progress tests
13.8.5. Diagnostic tests
13.8.6. Proficiency tests
13.8.6.1. Concepts of proficiency
13.9. Tests of grammar and usage
13.9.1. The most common task types (Heaton, 1995)
13.10. Assessing receptive skills (reading and listening)
13.10.1. The most widely used task types
13.11. Assessing productive skills (writing and speaking)
13.11.1 The most common task types for testing written performance.
13.11.2. Scoring productive writing tests
13.11.3. Assessing speaking skills
13.11.4. The most common task types
13.11.5. Scoring speaking tests
13.12. Language examinations in Hungary
13.12.1. Accredited language proficiency examinations
14. COURSE-BOOK EVALUATION
14.1. The basic principles of course-book evaluation
14.2. Basic steps and types of course-book evaluation
14.3. General characteristics of course-books
14.4. Main criteria for selecting course-books
14.5. Specific criteria to evaluate the content of course-books
14.6. Basic principles for organising the content
Bibliography
APPENDIX

INTRODUCTION

A complete survey with a detailed discussion of all the areas of Applied Linguistics is impossible to achieve here in the present volume. According to Péter Medgyes (1997) the discipline Applied Linguistics has got several interpretations. Some specialists mean Language Pedagogy by Applied Linguistics, while others integrate all new linguistic disciplines such as Psycholinguistics, Sociolinguistics, Pragmatics, Computer Assisted Linguistics into the term. We confine ourselves to certain areas of Language Pedagogy in this book so as to give a taste of language teaching process to BA students so that they can get some motivation and encouragement for teaching English as a foreign language and majoring as language teachers on MA level. The aim mentioned above could be achieved in two volumes. The first part of which contains the basic terms and definitions of Language Teaching Methodology. The second volume will deal with concepts such as language learning strategies, learning styles, the media and drama techniques, etc. 
The structure of the present first volume of Applied Linguistics for BA students follows the traditional model of a book on methodology. Having given the historical background of language teaching methods in the first two chapters the authors follow the general model of a book on Language Pedagogy taken all the principles of Communicative Approach into consideration. According to Jenő Bárdos (2000) the basic model of language teaching methodologies consists of the following five parts: who teaches whom, what and how, through what teaching aids. In chapter 3 the participants of learning process are in focus. Readers can learn about various teacher’s roles and teaching styles in the first part. It answers the question who. Its second part treats different learner types and learning styles to reflect on question whom. Having treated classroom management problems we inform our students about the nature of language teaching by presenting a language teaching model consisting of input and output stages. According to the model mentioned above developing students’ receptive and productive skills are in focus. Still remaining with the question what the book gives useful pieces of information about the problems of presenting and practising vocabulary, grammatical structures and developing students’ pronunciation. So as to follow the model of communicative language teaching we want to arouse students’ cultural awareness as well. To achieve our aims we include a chapter on culture into this part. Following Professor Bárdos’s model the question how is to be answered in chapters on planning, giving feedback and evaluation. The fifth element of the model – ‘through which’ – is in focus in chapters on visual, audio-visual and digital aids, and in the one focusing on course-book evaluation.
Our aim with the present work is to arouse BA students’ interest in Language Pedagogy and motivate them to become English teachers. At MA courses they will have plenty of chances to gain deeper knowledge in each area of Applied Linguistics. 

The authors

1. FORMER METHODS IN TEACHING ENGLISH

The purpose of this chapter is to provide information to the teacher trainees about the methods of foreign language teaching. By reading this chapter, you will gain an understanding of the principles on which these methods and approaches are based and of the techniques associated with each. The methods described here were chosen because some segments of them are currently practised today. We do not aim to convince you of the superiority of any of them. We would like to arouse your interest in the existing ways and methods and we want to encourage you to investigate each so that you can find the most efficient ones. 

1.1. The Grammar Translation Method 
The Grammar Translation Method has had different names but it has been used by language teachers for a long time. It was called Classical Method as it was first used in the teaching of the classical languages, Latin and Greek. Its aim was to help students read foreign language literature and it was also hoped that through studying the grammar of the target language students would become familiar with the grammar of their native language and that of the target language. In the 19th century the Classical Method was known as the Grammar Translation Method. According to the Grammar Translation Method the fundamental purpose of learning a foreign language is:

-	to be able to read literature written in the target language;
-	to provide students with good mental exercise which helps develop their
  	minds;
-	to give the learners grammatical rules and examples to memorize them;
-	to make them apply the rules to other examples;
-	to teach the students to write in both their native and the target languages    
       	through translation. (Bárdos 2005: 46)

The method itself belongs to the cognitive way of language teaching.
The basic principles of the method:

-	characteristic interaction in the teaching process is a Student – Teacher
 	interaction;
-	teacher’s roles are very traditional, the teacher is the authority in the
 	classroom;
-	literary language is considered superior to spoken language, culture is
 	considered as consisting of literature and the fine arts, behaviour culture
 	is ignored;
-	passive vocabulary and grammar are emphasized at cost of
 	pronunciation
-	reading and writing are the primary skills much less attention is given to speaking and listening;
-	the language that is used in class is mostly the students native language, the meanings of new words are made clear by translating them into the students native language;
-	evaluation is accomplished on the basis of written tests in which students are expected to translate from their native language to the target one or vice versa, questions about the foreign culture have to be answered as well;
-	culture is viewed as consisting of literature and the fine arts;
-	error correction is very important, the teacher always supplies the students with the correct answer
-	the syllabus is structure-based . 
Activities characteristic of the method:
-	translation of a literary passage
-	reading comprehension
-	finding antonyms and synonyms
-	gap-filling exercises
-	memorization
-	using words in sentences
-	compositions. (Larsen-Freeman 1986: 4-15)

1.2. The Direct Method
Since the Grammar Translation Method was not very effective in preparing students to use the target language communicatively, the Direct Method became popular. In the Direct Method no translation is allowed. The Direct Method receives its name from the fact that meaning is to be connected directly with the target language without going through the process of translating into he students’ native language. The method itself belongs to the natural approach of language teaching.
The goal of language learning is communication. In order to achieve this goal, students should learn to think in the target language.
The principles of the method:

-	the initiation of the interaction goes both ways, from teacher to students and from students to teacher although the latter is often teacher-directed, at the same time student-student interaction is used as well;
-	the native language should not be used in the classroom;
-	the teacher should demonstrate not explain or translate;
-	the teacher and the students are more like partners in the teaching/learning process;
-	it is desirable that students make a direct association between the target language and meaning;
-	students should learn to think in the target language as soon as possible;
-	vocabulary is acquired more naturally if students use it in full sentences rather than memorising word lists;
-	pronunciation should be worked on right from the beginning of language instruction;
-	lessons should contain some conversation activity – some opportunity for students to use language in real contexts;
-	students should be encouraged to speak as much as possible;
-	grammar should be taught inductively;
-	there may never be an explicit grammar rule given;
-	the syllabus is based on situations or topics not on linguistic structures;
-	learning a language involves learning the behaviour culture of the people living in the target country;
-	culture consisting of the history of the people who speak the target language and the geography of the country or countries where the language is spoken and information about the daily lives of the speakers in the target language are studied;
-	vocabulary is emphasized over grammar;
-	work on all four skills (reading, writing, speaking and listening) occurs from the start, oral communication is seen as basic;
-	there is no formal evaluation in the class, students have to use the language using both oral and written skills;
-	the teacher tries to get students to self-correct whenever possible.

Activities characteristic of the method:
-	reading aloud
-	conversation practice
-	gap filling exercise
-	dictation 
-	map drawing (The students are given a map with the geographical features unnamed. Then the teacher gives the students directions. (Following the teacher’s instructions the students have to label the map of a country.)
-	paragraph writing. (Larsen-Freeman 1986: 18-28)

1.3. The Audio-Lingual Method
The Audio-Lingual Method, which belongs to the cognitive approach of language teaching, was developed in the United States during WW II. There was a great demand for people speaking foreign languages for military purposes. They had to be prepared for their tasks in shortcut intensive courses. Some of the principles used in this method are similar to those of the direct method but many are different, based upon the conceptions of the Grammar Translation Method. 
The goal of Audio-Lingual Method is to enable students to use the target language communicatively. In order to do this, students need to over-learn the target language, to learn to use it automatically without stopping to think. This aim can be achieved by students’ forming new habits in the target language and overcoming the old habits of their native language.

The principles of the method are:

-	the teacher is like an orchestra leader, directing and controlling the language behaviour of her/his students; she provides her students with a good model for imitation;
-	the target language is used in the classroom not the students’ native language;
-	a contrastive analyses between the students’ native language and the target language will reveal where a teacher should expect the most interference;
-	there is student-student interaction in chain drills or when students take different roles in dialogues, but this interaction is teacher-directed because most of the interaction is between teacher-student and is initiated by the teacher;
-	new vocabulary and structures  are presented through dialogues, the dialogues are learnt through imitation and repetition, grammar is induced from the examples given: explicit grammar rules are not provided;
-	cultural information is contextualized in the dialogues or presented by the teacher;
-	the oral/aural skills receive most of the attention, pronunciation is taught from the beginning, often by students working in language laboratories;
-	students are evaluated on the bases of distinguishing between words in a minimal pair or by supplying an appropriate word form in a sentence;
-	student errors are to be avoided through the teacher’s awareness of where the students will have difficulty;
-	the syllabus is structure-based.

Activities characteristic of the method:
-	dialogue memorization
-	expansion-drill (This drill is used when a long dialogue is giving students trouble. The teacher brakes down the line into several parts. Following the teacher’s cue, the students expand what they are repeating part by part until they are able to repeat the entire line. The teacher begins with the part at the end of the sentence and works backward from there to keep the intonation of the line as natural as possible. This directs more student attention to the end of the sentence, where new information typically occurs.)
-	repetition drill
-	chain drill (The teacher begins the chain of conversation by greeting a student or asking him a question. That student responds, then turns to the student sitting next to him and the chain will be continued. The chain drill allows some controlled communication, even though it is limited.)
-	single-slot substitution drill (The teacher says a line, usually from the dialogue. Next, the teacher says a word or a phrase- called a cue. The students repeat the line the teacher has given them substituting the cue into the line in its proper place. The major purpose of this drill is to give the students practice in finding and filling in the slots of a sentence.)
-	multiple-slot substitution drill (The teacher gives cue phrases, one at a time that fit into different slots in the dialogue line. The students have to recognise what part of speech each cue is where it fits into the sentence and make other changes such as subject-verb agreement.)
-	transformation drill (Students are asked fro example to transform an affirmative sentence into a negative one.)
-	question and answer drill 
-	use of minimal pairs (The teacher works with pairs of words which differ in only one sound eg. ship – sheep.)
-	gap-filling 
-	grammar game. (Larsen-Freeman 1986: 31-50)

1.4. The Silent Way
According to cognitive psychologists and transformational generative linguists language learning does not take place through mimicry since people can create utterances they have never heard before. That is the reason why language must not be considered a product of habit formation, but rather a rule formation. Language acquisition must be a procedure where people use their own thinking processes, or cognition to discover the rules of the language they are acquiring. The emphasis on human cognition led to the name “cognitive code” being applied to a new general approach to language teaching. Caleb Gattegno’s Silent Way did not emerge from the cognitive code approach it shares certain principles with it. In the Silent Way teaching should be subordinated to learning.
The goal of the method is to enable students to use the language for self-expression to express their thoughts, perceptions and feelings. In order to do this they need to develop independence from the teacher, to develop their own inner criteria for correctness.

The principles of the Silent Way:
-	the teacher is a technician or engineer, only the learner can do the learning but the teacher can focus the students’ perceptions, force their awareness;
-	for much of the students-teacher interaction the teacher is silent; he is still very active setting up situations to force awareness; when the teacher speaks it is to give clues not to model the language; student-student verbal interaction is desirable and is encouraged;
-	the students’ native language can be used to give instructions when necessary to help a student improve his/her pronunciation; the native language is also used during the feed-back sessions;
-	vocabulary is restricted at first;
-	there is a focus on the structures of the language, although explicit grammar rules may never be supplied;
-	pronunciation is worked on from the beginning, it is important that students acquire the melody of the language;
-	all four skills are worked on from the beginning of the course, although there is a sequence in that students learn to read or write what they have already produced orally; the skills reinforce what students are learning;
-	the culture as reflected in people’s own unique world view is inseparable from their language;
-	the teacher never gives a formal test, he assesses student learning all the time; the teacher must be responsive to immediate learning needs; the teacher does not praise or criticize student behaviour since this would interfere with students developing their own inner criteria; the teacher looks for steady progress, not perfection;
-	students’ errors are seen as a natural, indispensable part of the learning process, errors are inevitable since the students are encouraged to explore the language; the teacher uses student errors as a basis for deciding where further work is necessary;
-	there is no fixed linear, structural syllabus, instead the teacher starts with what the students know and builds from one structure to the next; the previously introduced structures are continually being recycled.

Activities characteristic of the method:
-	sound-colour chart (The chart contains blocks of colour, each one representing a sound in the target language. The chart allows students to produce sound combinations in the target language without doing so through repetition.)
-	teacher’s silence (The teacher gives just as much help as is necessary and then is silent. Even in error correction the teacher will only supply a verbal answer as a last resort.)
-	peer correction
-	rods (Rods can be used to provide visible actions or situations for any language structure to introduce it, or to enable students to practice using it.)
-	self correction gestures (The teacher indicates for example that each of his fingers represents a word in a sentence and uses this to locate the trouble spot for the student.)
-	word chart 
-	Fidel charts (The teacher points to the colour coded Fidel charts in order that students can associate the sounds of the language with their spelling.)
-	structured feed-back (The teacher accepts the students’ comments in a non-defensive manner hearing things that will help give him direction for where he should work when the class meets again.) (Larsen-Freeman 1986: 51-72)

1.5. Suggestopedia

One of the alternative methods based on language acquisition belonging to the natural approach is Suggestopedia. The originator of the method, Georgi Lozanov asserts that we set up psychological barriers to learning. Suggestopedia has been developed to help students eliminate the feeling that they cannot be successful and to help them overcome the barriers to learning. Learning is facilitated in a relaxed, comfortable environment. A student can learn from the environment even if his attention is not directed to it. The student must trust and respect the teacher’s authority and activate his imagination. The teacher is supposed to increase her students’ confidence that they will be successful learners. The more confident the students feel, the better they will learn. When students’ attention is off the form of the language and on the process of communicating, students will learn best. The texts students work from contain lengthy dialogues in the target language. Next to the text is a translation in the learners’ mother tongue. There are some notes on the structures in the conversation as well. The teacher presents the dialogue during two concerts; the first phase of this presentation is the receptive phase. In the first concert the teacher reads the dialogue, matching her or his voice to the rhythm and pitch of the music. In this way, the “whole brain” of students becomes activated. The learners follow the target language dialogue as the teacher reads it out loud. They can also check the translation. In the second concert the students simply relax while the teacher reads the dialogue at a normal rate of speed. After this phase the students read over the dialogue again before they go to sleep and again when they get up the next morning. In the activation phase students engage in various activities including dramatizations, games, songs and question-and-answer exercises.
The goal of the method is to accelerate the process by which students learn to use a foreign language for everyday communication. This is to be done by breaking down the psychological barriers learners bring with them to the learning situation.
	
The principles of Suggestopedia:
-	the  teacher is the authority in the classroom, who must be trusted and respected by the students – once the students trust the teacher, they feel secure, they can be more spontaneous and less inhibited;
-	all types of interactions are to be found in case of the method, however first it is the teacher that initiates interactions with the whole group of students and with individuals right from the beginning of a course; in the beginning of the course the students can only respond nonverbally, later the students have more control of the target language and can respond more appropriately, and even initiate interaction themselves. Students interact with each other from the beginning in various activities directed by the teacher;
-	native language translation is used to make the meaning of the dialogue clear, the teacher uses the mother tongue in lesson when necessary; as the course proceeds, the teacher uses the native language less and less;
-	vocabulary is emphasized, the success of the method can be put down to the large number of words that can be acquired;
-	grammar is dealt with explicitly but minimally, students will learn best if their conscious attention is focused not on the language forms but on using the language;
-	pronunciation is developed by reading out loud;
-	the culture which students learn concerns the everyday life of people who speak the language. The use of the fine arts is also common in Suggestopedia;
-	speaking communicatively is emphasized, students also read the target language and write, for example compositions;
-	evaluation is conducted on students’ normal in-class performance and not through formal tests;
-	at the beginning levels, errors are not corrected immediately since the emphasis is on students communicating their intended meaning; when errors occur the teacher uses delayed correction;
-	the syllabus used in the method is functional.

Activities characteristic of the method:
-	peripheral learning (This activity is based on the idea that we perceive much more in our environment than that to which we consciously attend. By putting posters on the classroom walls students will absorb the necessary facts effortlessly. Posters are changed from time to time to provide grammatical information that is appropriate to what the learners are studying.)
-	choose a new identity (Learners choose a target language name and a new profession or trade. In someone else’s shoes the learners will be less inhibited while using the target language.)
-	role play. (Larsen-Freeman 1986: 72-89)

1.6. Community Language Learning

The Community Language Learning method takes its principle from the more general Counselling-Learning approach developed by Charles A. Curran. Curran studied adult learning for many years. A language counsellor means someone who is a skilful understander of the struggle students face as they attempt to internalize another language. By understanding students’ fears and being sensitive to them, he can help students overcome their negative feelings and turn them into positive energy to further their learning.
The goals of teachers are to make their students to learn how to use the target language communicatively. They want their students to learn about their own learning to take responsibility for it.

The principles of Community Language Learning:
-	the  teacher is a counsellor who recognizes how threatening a new learning situation can be for adult learners so he understands and supports his students in their struggle to acquire the target language;
-	the student-teacher interaction  in the Community Language Learning method changes within the lesson and over time, this method is neither student nor teacher centred but; rather teacher-student centred, with both being decision makers in the class; building a relationship with and among students is very important;
-	where possible, literal native equivalents are given to the target language words that have been transcribed, this makes their meaning clear and allows students to combine the target language words to create new sentences;
-	active vocabulary is very important as conversations in the target language can replace native language conversations;
-	the focus shifts from grammar to sentence formation, language is for communication;
-	pronunciation is developed by reading out loud;
-	culture is integrated with language;
-	the most important skills  are the receptive ones and speaking the language, reading and writing are worked on;
-	whatever evaluation is conducted it should be in keeping with the principles of the method, a classroom test should be more of an integrative test than a discrete point one, students are asked to write a paragraph rather than being asked to answer a question which deals with only one point of the language at a time; students often self-evaluate to become aware of their own progress;
-	errors are corrected in a non threatening way, the teacher repeats correctly what the student has said incorrectly;
-	the syllabus is designed primarily by the students.

Activities characteristic of the method:
-	transcription (The teacher transcribes the students’ tape-recorded target language conversation.)
-	reflective listening (The students relax and listen to their own voices speaking the target language on the tape.)
-	human computer (The student is “in control” of the teacher when she tries to say the word or phrase. The teacher repeats the phrase as often as the student wants to practise it. The teacher does not correct the student’s mispronunciation in any way.)
-	small group tasks (The small groups make new sentences with the words on the transcript. Afterward the groups share the sentences they made with the rest of the class.) 
(Larsen-Freeman 1986: 89-109)

1.7. Total Physical Response (TPR)

The idea of TPR originates from James Asher, who found that adults’ second or foreign language learning could have similar developmental patterns to that of children’s language acquisition. A baby spends a lot of months listening to the people around it long before it says a word. In Krashen’s The Natural Approach (1983) the students listen to the teacher using the target language communicatively from the beginning of the instruction throughout the course. The teacher helps her students to understand her by using pictures and occasional words in the students’ native language and by being as expressive as possible. In TPR students listen and respond to the spoken target language commands of their teacher.
The goal of TPR is to have the students enjoy their experience in learning to communicate in a foreign language. The TPR was developed in order to reduce the stress people feel when studying foreign languages and encourage students to persist in their study beyond the beginning level of proficiency.

The principles of TPR:
-	the  teacher is the director of all student behaviour, the students are imitators of her nonverbal model, in 10-20 hours of instruction students will be ready to speak;
-	interaction is between the teacher and the whole group of students and with individual students;
-	the method is introduced in the students’ native language, after the introduction rarely would the mother tongue be used ;
-	grammatical structures  and vocabulary are emphasized over other language areas;
-	pronunciation is developed through listening mostly;
-	culture is the lifestyle of people who speak the language natively;
-	skills: understanding the spoken word should precede its production, the spoken language is emphasized over written language, students often do not learn to read the commands they have already learnt to perform until after 10 hours of instruction;
-	formal evaluations can be conducted by commanding individual students to perform a series of actions;
-	teachers should be tolerant of errors and only correct major errors, even these should be corrected gently;
-	the syllabus is multi-strand.
Activities characteristic of the method:
-	using commands to direct behaviour 
-	role reversal (Students command their teacher and classmates to perform some actions. Students will want to speak after 10 to 20 hours of instruction. Students should not be encouraged to speak until they are ready.)
-	action sequence (Teacher gives three connected commands. As students learn more and more of the target language, a longer series of connected commands can be given which together comprise a whole procedure.) (Larsen-Freeman 1986: 109-123)

Revision questions and tasks

1.	List a few methods belonging to each approach. 
2.	What is the difference between language learning and language
 	acquisition?
3.	What elements of each method could you use in your teaching process?
 	Give examples.

2. THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH

This approach has preserved quite a lot of characteristic features from both the cognitive and the natural approaches. The representatives of the Communicative Approach (CA) acknowledge that structures and vocabulary are important but they emphasize the acquisition of linguistic structures or vocabulary as well. When we communicate we use the language to accomplish some function such as arguing, persuading and promising. We carry out these functions with a social context. Before speaking about this approach we must clarify what we mean by communication.

2.1. Communication

Activities that are truly communicative, according to Morrow (in Johnson and Morrow 1981) have three features: information gap, choice and feedback. An information gap exists when one person or a party, the writer or the speaker, the one who gives a written or an oral piece of information in an exchange, knows something that the other person or party, who receives it, does not. In a communicative situation the speaker has a choice of what /s/he will say and how /s/he will say it. If the sentences and structures are prescribed by the teacher, we cannot speak about the free choice of language. The receiver of the message, who is the listener or the reader, is supposed to react, to give feedback to the piece of information got from the speaker or the writer. That is the reason, why a lecture or a presentation is not a communicative activity.  J.Harmer (2003) describes communicative and non-communicative activities as follows:

Non-communicative activities	Communicative activities	
no communicative desire	a desire to communicate	
no communicative purpose	a communicative purpose	
form not content	content not form	
one language item only	variety of language	
teacher intervention	no teacher intervention	
materials control	no materials control	

2.2. Characteristics of communicative classes:

Communicative language teaching is 
•	content based
 language is a tool for getting information about the world. In this approach message is more important than the form. Interdisciplinary or in another word: cross-curricular approach, by which content can be integrated into English teaching, is based on a lot of authentic materials taken from various text types such as newspapers, journals, pamphlets, guidebooks etc. These texts cover a wide range of topics, so in addition to broadening your students’ minds, they will build up their vocabulary as well. 
•	intercultural
Foreign language learning is often foreign culture learning. In order to understand just what foreign culture learning is, one needs to understand the nature of acculturation and culture shock. A person's world view, self-identity, and systems of thinking, acting, feeling, and communicating can be disrupted by a change from one culture to another
•	holistic
It means that the whole personality of the learner must be developed during language teaching. This term related to communicative language teaching, will focus teachers attention on the fact that students’ ways of thinking should also be developed. 
•	experiential
The students are supposed to experience that the target language acquired is very useful in life. Authentic texts such as brochures, instructions, cookery books etc. make students feel how practicable their knowledge in English is.
•	learner-centred
Learners’ needs are very important in communicative language. Activities are chosen according to the various learning styles and they also must be age relevant.
The goal of communicative language teaching is to make students communicatively competent. Let us examine what the term communicative competence means. 

2.3. Defining Communicative Competence

The term "communicative competence" was coined by Dell Hymes (1967, 1972) -a sociolinguist who was convinced that Chomsky's (1965) notion of competence (see Chapter Two) was too limited. Communicative competence, then, is that aspect of our competence that enables us to convey and interpret messages and to negotiate meanings interpersonally within specific contexts. 
In the 1970s, research on communicative competence distinguished between linguistic and communicative competence (Hymes 1967, Paulston 1974) to highlight the difference between knowledge "about" language forms and knowledge that enables a person to communicate functionally and interactively. 
Seminal work on defining communicative competence was carried out by Michael Canale and Merrill Swain (1980), now the reference point for virtual discussions of communicative competence vis-á-vis second language teach in Canale and Swain's (1980), and later in Canale's (1983) definition, four :different components, or subcategories, make up the construct of communicative competence. The first two subcategories reflect the use of the linguistic stem itself. (Brown 1994: 226-250)
(1) Grammatical competence is that aspect of communicative competence that encompasses "knowledge of lexical items and of rules of morphology, syntax, sentence-grammar semantics, and phonology" (Canale and Swain 1980:29). It is the competence that we associate with mastering the linguistic code of a language, the "linguistic" competence of Hymes and Paulston, referred to above. 
(2) The second subcategory is discourse competence, the complement of grammatical competence in many ways. It is the ability we have to connect sentences in stretches of discourse and to form a meaningful whole out of a series of utterances. Discourse means everything from simple spoken conversation to lengthy written texts (articles, books, and the like). While grammatical competence focuses on sentence-level grammar, discourse competence is concerned with intersentential relationships.
The last two subcategories define the more functional aspects of communication. 
(3) Sociolinguistic competence is the knowledge of the socio-cultural rules of language and of discourse. This type of competence "requires an understanding of the social context in which language is used: the roles of the participants, the information they share, and the function of the interaction. Only in a full context of this kind can judgments be made on the appropriateness of a particular utterance (Savignon 1983: 37). 
(4) The fourth subcategory is strategic competence, a construct that is exceedingly complex. Canale and Swain (1980: 30) described strategic competence as "the verbal and nonverbal communication strategies that may be called into action to compensate for breakdowns in communication due to performance variables or due to insufficient competence." Savignon (1983:40) paraphrases this as "the strategies that one uses to compensate for imperfect knowledge of rules-or limiting factors in their application such as fatigue, distraction, and inattention." In short, it is the competence underlying our ability to make repairs, to cope with imperfect knowledge, and to sustain communication through "paraphrase, circumlocution, repetition, hesitation, avoidance, and guessing, as well as shifts in register and style" (Savignon 1983: 40-41).
Strategic competence occupies a special place in an understanding of communication. Actually, definitions of strategic competence that are limited to the notion of "'compensatory strategies" fall short of encompassing the full spectrum of the construct. In a follow-up to the previous (Canale and Swain, 1980) article, Swain (1984:189) amended the earlier notion of strategic competence to include "communication strategies that may be called into action either to enhance the effectiveness of communication or to compensate for breakdowns." (my italics) Similarly, Yule and Tarone (1990: 181) refer to strategic competence as "an ability to select an effective means of performing a communicative act that enables the listener/reader to identify the intended referent." So, all communication strategies-such as those discussed in Chapter Five-may be thought of as arising out of a person's strategic competence. In fact, strategic competence is the way we manipulate language in order to meet communicative goals.
Revision questions and tasks

1.	What are the main linguistic and pedagogical ideas behind the
 	Communicative Approach? 
2.	What components of communicative competence can you mention and
 	what do you mean by communication continuum? 
3.	What are the characteristic features of communicative classrooms?
4.	What makes an activity communicative? Give examples.

3. PARTICIPANTS OF LEARNING PROCESS

The two important participants of learning process are the teacher and the learner. The good learning atmosphere in the classroom can be characterized by the mutual understanding and the cooperation of the two parties. Students must not feel that they are outsiders and the passive participants, spectators of the lessons conducted by the teacher. They should feel the importance of learning English in another word they must be motivated by the teacher. In the following parts the various roles of the teachers and the different types of learners will be described.

3.1. Teacher’s roles, teaching styles

The teacher has several roles in the classroom. According to J. Harmer (2003) s/he can be a controller, an organiser, an assessor, a prompter, a participant and resource.

3.1.1. Controller

Teachers as controllers are in charge of the class and of the activities going on in groups. This control is not the most effective role for the teacher to adopt. This role is useful during the accurate reproduction stage of the lesson and in frontal activities. At the practice stage and especially at the production stage of the lesson this control should be relaxed to some degree.

3.1.2. Organiser

Organising students to do various activities is one of the most important roles that teachers have. It involves giving the students information, defining the work-forms in the classroom and organising teaching material. Skilful classroom management involves the following areas: 

-	organising the environment – it means decorating the walls of the classroom with culture-related posters, maps, flags etc. and arranging the desks and chairs so that the students can learn in different work-forms (in group-, pair-work etc.);
-	organising the children – according to language proficiency or language abilities; 
-	organising activities – so that the ideal balance of skills and activities should be maintained. After each stirring activity a settling activity must be planned, and various skills should be developed in different work-forms;
-	organising time – in an average lesson maximum five minutes must be devoted to a warm-up activity, which is followed by the so-called 3Ps (presentation, practice and production with about ten-fifteen minutes spent on each). The last period of lesson is to be spent on revision and giving feedback to the students;
-	organising resources – is as important an area as the ones mentioned previously, because all types of teaching material such as the course book, the workbook, handouts, cassettes etc. must be kept in a well-organised way so that the teacher can use them smoothly without making a chaos;
-	organising records – is considered to be a crucial element of classroom management all the teachers have to think of as their handling not properly can have legal consequences as well;
-	organising yourself – is the last but perhaps most important element of organisation as all the teachers are human beings and not machines with a lot of private problems their students cannot feel. Before entering the classroom teachers should leave their problems outdoors and focus on the work taking place inside.

3.1.3. Assessor

A major part of a teacher’s job is to assess the students’ work, to see how well they are performing and how well they have performed. The different types of error correction must be distinguished. At the accurate reproduction stage, where the teacher is totally in control, s/he must be correcting each student error or mistake. Where students are involved in immediate creativity (at the production stage of the lesson) gentile correction or delayed correction should be used lest the teachers should make students inhibited. 
A distinction between two kinds of feedback must be made content feedback concerns an assessment of how well the students performed the activity as an activity rather than as a language exercise. Form feedback, on the other hand tells students how well they performed in terms of the accurate use of language. Content feedback should usually come first and the teacher must decide when form feedback is appropriate and when it is not. It is vital for the teacher to be sensitive and tactful to his/her students in his/her role as assessor and to start assessment always with the positive feedback.

3.1.4. Prompter

In this role the teacher needs to encourage students to participate in a role play activity or needs to make suggestions about how students may proceed in an activity. The role of prompter has to be performed with discretion because if the teacher is too aggressive, s/he will take over the jobs from the students and he will make the students lazy and passive. 

3.1.5. Participant

Teachers should not be afraid to participate in certain activities as a partner but s/he should not get involved in pair-work or group-work because it will prevent him/her from monitoring the students and performing other important roles.

3.1.6. Resource

Teachers used to be the only resource of information but this role cannot be performed these days as it was done several decades ago. Students have an access to the Internet and other important sources so teachers can add only some pieces of information to the ones gained from other sources. Teachers are supposed to organise and coordinate the process of acquisition, to act as a catalyst. (Harmer 2003: 56-63)

3.2. Learner types
3.2.1. The Age of Learners

The age of the students is a major factor in teachers’ decisions about how and what to teach. Learners of different ages have different needs, competences and cognitive skills. Some people say that children learn languages faster than adults do. Children are thought to pick up new languages effortlessly. Another belief is that adolescents are unmotivated. Adult learners can engage with abstract thought.
In the following table the basic differences among three age groups are presented.

CHILDREN	ADOLESCENTS	ADULTS	
Topics:
their surroundings,
animals, toys, nature, tales	Topics:
love, pop music,
sport, cars, living world,
     films	Topics:
marriage, career,
politics, travelling, 
     housing	
Concentration span: 
     short; 
a lot of varied 
activities are to
be planned for a lesson, 
     they are good at 
     pronunciation	Concentration span:
     longer,
inhibited, shy, 
  vulnerable,
they dislike being mad to
  look foolish in front of 
  their classmates	Concentration
     span: the longest,
better cognitive
skills, good at 
     morphology
and at syntax	
Teaching structures:
Covert way,
discovery technique**	Teaching structures:
Both techniques are used	Teaching structures:
  Overt way,
teacher-led
     presentation*	
Motivation:
Intrinsic, the process of
     learning is more
important, than the result	Motivation:
both intrinsic and
     extrinsic types of
motivation	Motivation:
Mainly extrinsic, 
     short cut
intensive courses	
Way of thinking: 
     concrete, learning by
     doing principle	Way of thinking:
less concrete, more 
     abstract.	Way of thinking: abstract, highly developed cognitive skills, stressful atmosphere, they want to achieve
advanced level in a short time.	
No educational histories
     are fixed.	They have their
     histories:
each failure predisposes
     them to more failure, 
     each success provokes
    them the for more 
    success.	A long history of
    learning experience: 
    with their own, record
    of success or failure.	

*TEACHER-LED PRESENTATION:
Lead in: the context is introduced and the meaning or the use of the new language is demonstrated
Elicitation: if students can produce the new language to see what problems students have
Explanation: teacher shows how the new language is formed
Accurate reproduction: students are asked to repeat and practice modal sentences Immediate creativity: to see if students have understood the structure

** DISCOVERY TECHNIQUE

Lead in: the context is introduced and the meaning or the use of the new language is demonstrated
Instead of Elicitation students work in pairs or individually and work on the task. Explanation: the teacher discusses with the students what they have found Practice.

Young learners (6-12 years)

- Children learn by doing – Concepts and language develop through engagement and involvement in doing things. Children’s way of thinking is concrete so we must not teach concepts to them but we have to develop manual skills through certain activities giving English instructions.
- Children need to make sense of the world – They can “grasp” meaning even if they do not fully understand language. Teachers are supposed to use English without explaining the grammatical rules.
- The process of learning is as important as the product – The activities in English classes must be attractive and enjoyable to the learners. Young learners cannot understand the point of learning a foreign language; they are interested in the games and activities in the lessons.
- There's nothing like success to succeed – Success will generate more success they will motivate learners intrinsically. 
- Covert way of grammar teaching should be applied – Grammatical structures are presented and practised in nursery rhymes, songs and tongue twisters. (Sárosdy-Gaál 1994: 11-14)

Adolescents (13-18 years)

- Search for individual identity – Peer approval may be more important for the student than the attention of the teacher. 
- Adolescents may cause discipline problems – If the teacher manages to control them in a supportive and constructive way, they can be solved.
- Each failure predisposes them to more failure, each success provokes them for more success – Adolescents are very sensitive they can get more and more inhibited if they are hurt I their feelings. 
- Both intrinsic and extrinsic types of motivation work with them – They enjoy age-relevant challenges but they are interested in extra scores for an entrance exam as well.
- Both covert and overt ways of grammar teaching can be applied – As this period is a transitory part in their lives, both ways can be useful. (Harmer 2003: 38-40)

Adults (18 –   )

- They can engage with abstract thought – They like learning about the language and they are interested in the reasons for certain linguistic phenomena. 
- They have a whole range of life experiences to draw on (eg. negative experience with learning Russian – Adults are not really confident because they have had a lot of failures while learning foreign languages so teachers should find new ways of motivation for them.
- They have expectations about the learning process so they are not open to new ways and methods. 
- Adults are more disciplined than some teenagers; they are prepared to struggle on despite boredom.
- They are extrinsically motivated as they have clear understanding of why they are learning and what they want to get out of it.
- Overt way of grammar teaching can be applied as their cognitive skills are highly developed. On the other hand pronunciation is a weak point of adult learners as their organic basis of speech is not flexible at this age. (Harmer 2003: 40)

3.2.2. Learner differences
3.2.2.1. Neuro-linguistic programming – Revell and Norman (1997)

Some people are better at some things than others – better at analyzing or at remembering faces than others. This fact would indicate that there are differences in the ways individual brains work. It also suggests that people respond differently to the same stimuli. There are two well-known theories which teachers have attempted to use for the benefit of their learners. One of them is Neuro-linguistic programming. According to this we use a number of “primary representational systems” to experience the world. These systems are described in the acronym “VAKOG” which stands for:

-	Visual (we look and see) – visual learners tend to prefer reading and studying charts, drawings and graphic information;
-	Auditory (we hear and listen) – these learners are characterised by a preference for listening to lectures and audiotapes;
-	Kinaesthetic (we feel externally, internally or through movement) – these learners are right-brain dominant, they use both hemispheres of their brains simultaneously that is why they are acquiring the structures through actions;
-	Olfactory (we smell things), 
-	Gustatory (we taste things) – in case of the latter two nose and mouth are involved in the presentation of certain topics, it must be added that they have not been explored in language teaching so far. (Harmer 2003: 41)

3.2.2.2. Multiple intelligences theory – Gardner (1983)

The other one is Multiple intelligences theory which is a concept introduced by Howard Gardner. In his book Frames of Mind he suggested that as humans we do not possess a single intelligence, but a range of intelligences (Gardner: 1983). He listed seven of these:

-	Musical/Rhythmic – learners like singing, listening to music; they are good at remembering melodies, picking up sounds; they can learn language best by music, rhythm and melody;
-	Verbal/Linguistic – (left-brain dominant) learners like reading, writing and telling stories; they are good at memorizing names, places, dates; they  learn best by saying, hearing and seeing words;
-	Visual/Spatial – learners are the same as visual learners in the previous system, they like drawing, looking at pictures, movies and drawings; they are good at imagining things, reading maps, charts; they learn best by dreaming, visualizing, working with colours and pictures; 
-	Bodily kinaesthetic – learners like moving around, touching and talking, using body language; they are good at physical activities such as dancing, sport and acting; they learn best by processing knowledge through bodily sensations, touching, moving, interacting with space;
-	Logical/Mathematical – learners like doing experiments, figuring things out, working with numbers exploring patterns and relationships; they are good at maths, reasoning and problem solving; they learn best by categorising, classifying, working with abstract patterns;
-	Intra personal (introverted) – learners are the loners, they like learning alone, pursuing their own interests; they are good at understanding selves, focusing inward on feelings, goals, being original; they learn best by working alone individualised projects, self-paced instructions having their own spaces;
-	Interpersonal (extroverted) – learners (the socialisers) like having lots of friends, talking to people, joining groups; they are good at understanding people, leading others, organising, communicating, manipulating and mediating conflicts; they learn best by sharing, comparing, relating, cooperating, interviewing.

3.2.2.3. Learning styles according to Willing (1987)

Keith Willing, working with adult students in Australia, produced the following descriptions:

-	Convergers: these are students who are by nature solitary, prefer to avoid groups, and who are independent and confident in their own abilities. Most importantly they are analytic and can impose their own structures on learning. They tend to be cool and pragmatic.
-	Conformists: these are students who prefer to emphasise learning 'about language' over Learning to use it. They tend to be dependent on those in authority and are perfectly happy to work in non-communicative classrooms, doing what they are told. A classroom of conformists is one which prefers to see well-organised teachers.
-	Concrete learners: though they are like conformists, they also enjoy the social aspects of learning and like to learn from direct experience. They are interested in language use and language as communication rather than language as a system. They enjoy games and groupwork in class.
-	Communicative learners: these are Language use orientated. They are comfortable out of class and show a degree of confidence and a willingness to take risks which their colleagues may Lack. They are much more interested in social interaction with other speakers of the language than they are with analysis of how the language works. They are perfectly happy to operate without the guidance of a teacher.

Revision questions and tasks

1.	Define teacher’s roles, teaching styles. 
2.	In what ways can the learner’s personality, confidence and inhibition be
               taken into consideration in the teaching process?
3.	How can teachers cope with crises and group problems? 
4.	What are the sources of teacher-group or intra-group conflicts? 
5.	What to do with the indigestible group members?
6.	What is the significance of distance learning, computer assisted language
               learning? 

4. CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

In addition to the various learner types and the different roles of teachers (dealt with in the previous chapter), classroom management also involves classroom interaction, group dynamics, various work-forms and setting up activities such as organizations and giving instructions, discipline problems. 

4.1. Classroom interaction

Action and reaction are not interaction. The teacher follows his plan of action and acts according to plan, he gets students to repeat, makes them do exercises, organises them for a game-type activity. The class react to the teacher’s actions in different ways. They repeat some things well, some things badly, they give some answers correctly, and make mistakes with others; they follow the teacher’s instructions with some activities, and fail to do with others. They demonstrate no apparent reaction. The teacher, however, fails to respond to these reactions. He does not probe the silence to see if it indicates understanding or confusion. He does not pick up the mistakes to see how he can correct them. He does not notice the confusion when he leaves the students to work in pairs. 
Interaction is more than action followed by reaction. Interaction means acting reciprocally, acting upon each other. The teacher acts upon the class, but the class reaction modifies his next action and so on. The class reaction becomes in itself an action, evoking a reaction in the teacher, which influences his subsequent action. There is a constant pattern of mutual influence and adjustment. Interaction is a two-way process. It can be a positive state or a negative one. Every interaction situation has the potential for cooperation or conflict.

Interaction has different subtypes such as:

-	Teacher – Student interaction
-	Student – Teacher interaction
-	Student – Student interaction
-	Course book – Student interaction
-	Course book – Teacher interaction

A special type of interaction is pedagogic interaction, the interaction of teaching and learning. This is a continuous, ever changing process and the factors of context shift from minute to minute. The teacher acts upon the learners to cause a reaction. This reaction informs some action performed by the learners: a response to a question, an item in a drill, a word pronounced or spelt, a sentence written. The teacher studies this action and perceives in it the reaction to her original action. She in turn reacts and builds this into the subsequent action on the class and so on. This is illustrated in the figure below:

In: A. Malamah-Thomas: Classroom Interaction (1991: 39)
 
The teacher should constantly monitor the students reactions and take account of these reactions at every stage of the lesson. The learning even parallels the speech event. Pedagogic interaction parallels verbal interaction. Teaching acts can parallel speech acts.
Every utterance in a speech event consists of two factors: propositional content and communicative purpose. The propositional content refers to these aspects of the real world that the speaker wishes to make reference to. The communicative purpose refers to the speaker’s intention in making the utterance, the effect s/he wishes to create in the hearer. 

utterance

propositional content	communicative purpose

reference to real world 	reference to speaker's intentions

In: A. Malamah-Thomas: Classroom Interaction (1991: 86)

In a question: What are you laughing at? – the content is laughter and the cause of his laughter. The purpose is to get the person to stop laughing. Content of a methodological activity is the syllabus item or teaching point, the aspect of real language the teacher wishes to make reference to. Purpose refers to the teacher’s intention in employing the activity, the effect s/he wishes to create inn the learner.

activity

content	purpose

reference to	reference to
real language	teacher's objectives

In: A. Malamah-Thomas: Classroom Interaction (1991: 87)

Student – Student interaction can be developed in group context, that is the reason why we have to put an emphasis on classroom dynamics to be treated in the following part.

4.2. Classroom dynamics

A research in social psychology confirms what teachers know instinctively: a cohesive group works efficiently and productively (Argyle: 1972). A positive group atmosphere can have a beneficial effect on the morale, motivation, and self-image of its members, and thus significantly affect their learning by developing in them a positive attitude to the language being learnt to the learning process and to themselves as learners. Successful groups can be, as T. Douglas puts it “an instrument of behavioural or attitudinal change, an instrument of support and maintenance, a pool of resources, and an instrument to facilitate learning.” (Douglas: 1983)

An unsuccessful group can be described as follows:

-	the individuals in the class do not cohere into a group,
-	there is an uncomfortable, tense or negative atmosphere,
-	some members of the group will not participate in group activities and some other members will tend to dominate group activities at the expense of shyer members,
-	group members are not interested in each other and they are not self-reliant but dependent on the teacher,
-	members of the group lack responsibility: they are reluctant to make an effort or to take the initiative. 

A successful group will be one where:

-	the group is cohesive and the members have a definite sense of themselves as a group,
-	there is a positive and supportive atmosphere: members have a positive self-image which is reinforced by the group,
-	group members are interested in each other and feel they have something in common,
-	the group is self-reliant and has a sense of responsibility; it is able to overcome problems and difficulties without the teacher,
-	the members of the group trust each other,
-	group members are open-minded, flexible, receptive to new ideas, they empathize with each other.

In the following table two models of group life can be seen, one described by Tuckman (1965), and the other one presented by Hadfield (1992). 

Classic models of group life – they show predictable and regular stages
TUCKMAN (1965)	HADFIELD (1992)	
forming	forming	
storming		
norming	maintaining	
performing	disbanding	
mourning/adjourning		

In: Stevick, E. W. (1980)

In both models three stages of group life can be distinguished: forming, maintaining and disbanding. Certain common goals and activities set by the teacher can help the students to form a group. Naturally a group consists of different persons with different ways of thinking. All of them will have various concepts and ideas about a task to perform. That is the stage of storming during which conflicts may arise among students. Tuckman called this phase storming stage. The period in the life of a group when conflicts are settled and handled properly is the norming stage of the group. Performing stage will give satisfaction to the group members, as they can perform something for which they have been preparing for a long time. After the peak time of group life all the members get exhausted so the group will disband. The memories and the conclusions of group activities will remain in the students for a long time.
What should teachers do to from group cohesion and what are the stages of group formation? Teachers must give a lot of role play activities, project work, competitions and further tasks requiring common efforts from the students. Learners must feel the responsibility for achieving the common goals and they have to select the right persons for the various jobs in the group. A task like this will develop their emphatic attitude. 

4.3. Classroom arrangement – various work-forms in classes

The teacher can group students in the classroom in as many ways as s/he wants to. Teaching a class as a whole group, getting students to work on their own, or having them perform tasks in pairs or groups all have their own advantage and disadvantages.

4.3.1. Whole class grouping (Frontal/Lockstep)

This work-form is used at the presentation stage of the lesson when students need the same input. It reinforces a sense of belonging among the group members, something which teachers need to foster (Williams and Burden 1997:79). 

Advantages of whole class grouping:

-	it is suitable for activities where the teacher is acting as a controller,
-	an ideal way of showing pictures, texts or audio/video tape,
-	it is cost efficient as well,
-	it is the preferred class style where students and teachers feel secure when the whole class is working in lockstep and under the direct authority of the teacher. 

Disadvantages of whole class grouping:

-	individual students do not have much of a chance to say something on their own,
-	a lot of students are inhibited to participate in front of the whole class since they do not want to take the risk of public failure,
-	this work-form does not encourage students to take responsibility for their own learning, it is the teacher who is responsible here for the learning process,
-	frontal activities are not suitable for communicative language teaching specifically for task-based sequences, communication between individuals is more difficult in a group of twenty or thirty than it is in groups of four or five.

4.3.2. Individualised learning

Individualised learning is a vital step in the development of learner autonomy. Students do exercises on their own in class teachers are able to spend time working with individual students. If we wish students to work on their own in class, we can allow them to read privately and then answer questions individually, students can write compositions, essays on their own as well etc.

Advantages of individualized learning:

-	it allows teachers to respond to individual student differences in terms of pace of learning, learning styles, and preferences,
-	this work-form is less stressful for students then performing in a whole class setting,
-	it will develop learner’s autonomy and will promote skills of self-reliance.
Disadvantages of the work-form:
-	this work-form does not encourage cooperation between students and it does not develop a sense of belonging,
-	it demands more time from the tutor than interacting with the whole class.

4.3.3. Pairwork

In pairwork students can practice language together, they can take part in information-gap activities, they can write dialogues, they can work simultaneously with other pairs.

Advantages of pairwork:

-	it increases student talking time one student gets in the class,
-	it makes for teachers possible to work with one or two pairs while the other students go on working,
-	this work-form is quick and easy to organize.
Disadvantages of pairwork:
-	pairwork is very noisy, sometimes teachers lose control of their class,
-	students often use their native language,
-	not each mistake or error can be corrected in pairwork,
-	students would rather relate to the teacher as individuals than interact with another learner who is just as weak linguistically as he is.

4.3.4. Groupwork

Students in groups can write a group story or they can role play a situation involving four or five students. Small groups of around four or five students provoke greater involvement and participation than larger groups. 

Advantages of groupwork:

-	like pairwork it dramatically increases the amount of talking for individual students,
-	personal relationships are less problematic here, there is a greater chance of different opinions and varied contributions than in pairwork,
-	there are plenty of chances to cooperate and negotiate with one another than in pairwork,
-	it promotes learner’s autonomy.
Disadvantages of groupwork:
-	it can be noisy,
-	some teachers can lose control over the class,
-	sometimes groups are fossilised, some of the students are passive whereas others may dominate,
-	it can take longer to organise groups than pairs.

4.4. Discipline problems	 

The phrase classroom discipline is hard to define in words. According to Ur, P. (1996) 

4.4.1. Discipline means that:

-	learning is taking place in a disciplined classroom. The relationship between discipline and learning is not direct at all. There might be well-disciplined classes where no learning is taking place and some learning might happen in undisciplined classes, but we can say in general that more learning is likely to take place in a disciplined classroom because:

-	more time will be spent on task than on organisation and dealing with disruptive behaviour,
-	the teacher can monitor better what is going on and can help when needed to prevent problems in learning

- the teacher is in control – this does not mean that s/he dominates the class or is standing in front of the class telling everyone what to do. The teacher may hand over the initiative I a particular situation to the students and then s/he can take it back.
- teacher and students are cooperating smoothly – so that is the class can proceed smoothly, the students need to cooperate with the teacher and with each other as well.
- the lesson is proceeding according to the plan – a lesson which is going according to the plan is more likely to be disciplined, because the teacher knows where s/he is going, activities are well-prepared and organised, and the awareness that the process is clearly planned tends to boost teacher’s confidence and students’ trust, which in their turn also contribute to discipline. On the other hand changes and improvisation do not necessarily lead to discipline and may even prevent it.
- teacher and students are aiming for the same objective – a shared knowledge of and agreement on lesson objectives is not, therefore, absolutely necessary for a disciplined classroom but it contributes to it, it will raise students’ motivation and a likelihood of cooperation.

4.4.2. Why discipline problems occur

There are many reasons fro problem behaviour it can stem from students’ reactions to their teacher’s behaviour, from other factors inside the classroom, or from outside factors.
- the family – sometimes indiscipline can be traced back to a difficult home situation,
- education – students’ expectations of learning experience can be coloured either by unpleasant memories or by what they were once allowed to get away with,
- self-esteem – a lack of respect from teacher or peers can make students feel frustrated and upset, in such a situation disruptive behaviour is an attractive option,
- boredom – when the chosen topic or activity is inappropriate, students show their lack of interest by behaving badly,
- external factors – teachers notice significant behaviour changes in different weathers, sometimes a high wind tends to make their students go wild,
- what the teacher does – students who feel their self-esteem to have been damaged especially if we are unfair, it is more likely for the students to be badly behaved in the future,
- time of the day – the class is in the afternoon or early in the morning so students are tired, or sleepy, or hungry,
- a desire to be noticed – adolescents often need to be noticed or have a desire to be noticed in some way. Solution: teacher should challenge these students with activities that should not let them take over centre stage.

In: Hadfield, J. (1996:149): Classroom Dynamics

4.4.3. The teacher’s role in maintaining discipline

4.4.3.1. How to prevent disruptive behaviour

- by careful planning of the lesson – when a lesson is clearly planned and organised students’ attention will be kept on the task and the formation of a vacuum will not be allowed which may be filled by distracting activities; particularly for the classes that might cause trouble the teacher has to appear to be well-prepared and knowledgeable about the subject.
- creating a code of conduct – have a clear code of conduct established through discussion – at the beginning of a course reach an agreement on eg. arriving on time or not bringing food to the classroom, doing homework etc.; through examples – if you expect your students to be punctual, you should arrive on time too.
-consistency – do not ban students something one week and allow it the next week because it can lead to the loss of respect.
 - fairness – teachers should always try to avoid having favourites or picking on particular individuals. Most teachers have students that they like or dislike more than others, but a major part of their job is not to show these preferences or prejudices in the classroom.
- attitude – do not have a negative attitude to learning, a teacher, who does not really care about his job who is insensitive to students’ reactions to what is happening in the classroom will lose the respect of the students and it is the first step to problems of disruptive behaviour.
- interpersonal relationships – if students respect you ad each other, they are more likely to cooperate. Fostering a feeling of respect and of good will is an important factor.
- methodology – do not give boring classes; students who are interested and enthusiastic do not generally exhibit problem behaviour. The greatest simple cause of indiscipline is boredom. You should vary your teaching techniques and you should time activities very carefully.
 – instructions – problems sometimes arise due to students’ uncertainty about what they are supposed to be doing.
- professionalism – students respect teachers who show that they know what they are doing, it can be demonstrated not only by our knowledge of our subject but also by evidence that we have invested time in thinking about and planning our lessons; professionalism also means practising what we preach.

4.4.3.2. Dealing with the rising problems

- be firm – a relaxed and friendly atmosphere is desired but not at all cost,
- immediate action – students often try to find the limits how you can tolerate misbehaviour, do not let things get out-of-hand, react to these problems immediately,
- deal with it quietly – immediate action does not mean making a scene, keeping a low profile of deviant activity is important,
- do not take things personally – try to relate to the problem not the student as the object to be attacked and dealt with, do not let students pull you into personal conflicts,
-	do not use threats – teachers who threaten students with terrible punishments and then do not carry them out are doing both the class and themselves a disservice.

4.4.3.3. When the problem has exploded
- do not raise your voice – the display of anger should be short trying to establish control by raising your voice and shouting has disastrous consequences for it contributes to the general raising of the level of noise in the classroom,
- reseating – an effective way of controlling a student who is behaving badly is to make the student sit in a different place immediately, troublesome students should be separated,
- change the activity – if the majority of the class seem to be gradually getting out of control, a change of activity will often restore order,
- talks after the class – when one of the students is continually causing trouble the teacher should take that student to one site after the class is over and the student should be given a chance to say why s/he behaves in this way.

4.5. Classroom management techniques

Remember strategies are no substitute for good teaching. Good teaching is a preventative measure. It keeps students so involved and interested that they don't want to cause discipline problems.
No technique works for everyone all the time. However, if you are using techniques that are successful with most students most of the time in most situations, then most students, are often 'on task' and you can use your energies for 'the exceptions'.

4.5.1. Techniques

a) Show respect for students - names, thank you, individual attention, listen.
b) Clearly define the boundaries of behaviour. - fences - cows - rules.
     procedures - be organised / over- prepared
c) Behaviour modification
- catching students being good
- have a partner teacher for support / withdrawal from class.

d) Professionalism
- don't hold a grudge / take it personally
-. Be punctual - return tests. assignments promptly.
e) Class Techniques
- eye contact	- secure attention. FIRST
- use 'we' not 'you'	- standing up conveys authority, - moving forward conveys authority - firm well-modulated voice conveys authority
f) Teacher's role 	- to be friendly but not friends
- legitimate power do not abuse
- give warnings but make sure you carry them out
g) Know your students:	- recognise student diversity
- surprise them. ‘Flow did you know that…’
Revision questions and tasks

1.	How does seating influence the classroom processes? 
2.	What are the advantages and the disadvantages of various work-forms? 
3.	Give some reasons why students might misbehave. 
4.	What is the teacher expected to organise? 
5.	How to give clear instructions? 
6.	How can a teacher check if students understand her instructions/
               explanations? 
7.	When is the use of the mother tongue justifiable?
8.	What is your understanding of “discipline”? Give examples of pairing
               and grouping activities. 
9.	Why is the group context important in language learning classrooms?
               What are the predictable stages in the life of the group? 
10.	What are the characteristics of each? 
11.	What can a teacher do to build a good group? Describe 3 activities aimed
               at improving group dynamics.

5. LANGUAGE SKILLS
5.1. A language teaching model

Classroom activities can be divided into two main categories: those that give the students language input, and those which encourage them to produce output. When acquisition or conscious learning takes place, language is being put into the students’ brain. The ability to retrieve these items makes it possible for the learners to produce and use the language they have stored in their brains. Learners will have to combine the items got in the stage of input in the next stage of language learning which is called the stage of output. A further distinction in input stage must be made between two different types: roughly-tuned input and finely-tuned input. The former is language at a level slightly above the students’ abilities. The latter is language selected very precisely to be at exactly the students’ level.     Language output can be divided into two subcategories. In the first, practice, students are asked to use new language in different contexts. The aim is to the consolidation of the target structure in the next stage of output: communication output. It is more important for the students to use the target language items in situations in which they have to select appropriate language from the total language store. So classroom activities can be divided into two large areas: those that are concerned with language input (where students receive new language) and those that foster language output (where students are forced to use any of the language they have learnt). 

5.1.1. Input
5.1.1.1. Roughly-tuned Input
It is this kind of input that helps students to acquire new language. Input of this type can come from various sources such as teacher’s talk in the class, any reading passages from newspapers or from any other sources etc. Much of this teaching will involve students in receptive skills (reading or listening) to achieve some kind of purpose. Teachers will ask their students to read a text so that they can extract two or three pieces of information. Reading or listening texts that are roughly-tuned do not only train the students to read and listen but they will make it possible for students to acquire new language. 

5.1.1.2. Finely-tuned Input
Finely-tuned input is language which has been selected for conscious learning. Such language is introduced to the learners at the so-called presentation stage where students are encouraged to employ the cognitive strategies. During the presentation stage the teacher selects the language for the students with a certain linguistic aim and insists on accurate reproduction of the new item. 

5.1.2. Output
5.1.2.1. Practice output

A teacher who is responsible for his students’ conscious learning will want to ensure that the students can use the language presented in the input stage, and he will do it by organising practice activities for them. According to Harmer (Harmer 1985: 34-37) practice output marks a half-way stage between input and communication output. Practice output is a way of encouraging students to use language they have recently learnt in a realistic way. Students’ errors and mistakes will be corrected accurately when they occur.

5.1.2.2. Communication output

This term refers to activities in which the students’ main purpose is to complete some kind of communication task. It is an instrument of communication rather than an end in itself. Instead of concentration on accuracy at this stage the focus will be on the success of communication. Students’ mistakes and errors must be corrected only gently or delayed to prevent students from getting inhibited. 

INPUT	OUTPUT	
ROUGHLY -TUNED
above students’ level, authentic
     material	PRACTICE
accurate reproduction stage
each error is corrected controlled/
semi-controlled practice	
FINELY -TUNED
according to students’ level	COMMUNICATIVE
free practice with gentle or delayed
correction	

Output and input mutually affect each other. According to Harmer (2003) when a student produces a piece of language and sees how it turns out, that information is fed back into the acquisition process. Output becomes input. The input can take various forms. It can come from the teacher, from the students themselves and from other students. Teachers can provide feedback not just when a student finishes a piece of work but also during the presentation as teachers can offer ongoing support as prompters or as a resource as well.

OUTPUT
speech
writing

LANGUAGE STUDENT

teacher’s feedback

student modifies his/her understanding

student sees how it turns out

other students’ feedback

other students participate

INPUT
audio/video tapes
native speakers in person
native speaker media
reading and pedagogic texts
the teacher

The circle of input and output (Harmer 2003: 250)

Brown (1994) argues that the process of language acquisition is similar to a tree grown in your garden. The rain clouds of input stimulate seeds of predisposition (genetically transmitted processes). But the potency of that input is dependent on the appropriate styles and strategies that a person puts into action (represented as soil). Upon the germination of language abilities (not all the seeds of predisposition are effectively activated), networks of competence (like underground roots, cannot be observed from above the ground) grow stronger as the organism actively engages in comprehension and production of language. The resulting root system (inferred competence) is what we commonly call intake. Notice that several factors distinguish input from intake. Through the use of further strategies the affective abilities, coupled with the feedback we receive from others (note the tree trunk), we ultimately develop full flowering communicative abilities. The fruit of our performance (output) is of course conditioned by the climate of innumerable contextual variables. At any point the horticulturist (teacher) can irrigate to create better input. This is not the kind of extended metaphor that one can prove through empirical research. (Brown 1994: 295)

5.2. Classification of language skills

The process of language teaching can be subdivided into two major stages: the input stage and the output stage. Receptive skills, in which people extract meaning from the source they read or hear, belong to the input stage. Based on the input received they will speak or write their thoughts. This phase will belong to the so-called output stage of language learning. Language skills can be classified according to the medium as well. Listening, speaking and interpreting belong to the oral skills, while reading, writing and translating can be categorised as written skills. While listening, speaking, reading and writing are simplex skills interpreting and translating presuppose several sub-skills so they are usually defined as complex skills. (Bárdos: 2005: 21)

  
	              MEDIUM
     SKILL	SPEECH	WRITTEN WORD	TYPES	
input	RECEPTIVE	listening and
understanding	reading and
understanding
	simplex
	
output	PRODUCTIVE	speaking	writing		
		interpreting	translating	complex	

5.2.1. Receptive Skills

The two receptive skills are reading and listening. There are several similarities between teaching them so the general description to be given here applies both to listening and reading. Though reading and listening are receptive skills it does not mean that the reader or the listener is only a passive participant of communication, as both skills involve active participation. Reading and listening are sources of both finely- and roughly-tuned input.
5.2.1.1. Reasons for reading and listening

We can divide reasons for reading and listening into two broad categories:  instrumental and pleasurable listening or reading. We can speak about instrumental reading or listening when we want to achieve some clear aim. For example, we read instructions on a machine because we want to know how to operate it. A brochure is read if tourists need some pieces of information about a spot of interest etc. Pleasurable reading or listening takes place for pleasure. People read magazines or listen to a talk on the radio to while away their free time. In both types of reading/listening readers/listeners are interested in the topics either because they find them useful or because they find them interesting. 
5.2.1.2. Sub-skills of Receptive Skills

According to Harmer (2003) the processes we go through when reading a short story or listening to a poem are likely to be different from those we use when we are looking for some data in a manual or we want to know how to operate a machine. The use of these different skills will depend on what we are reading or listening for. While reading a text we use the following sub-skills:

-	identifying the topic – readers and listeners are able to identify the topic of a text very fast with the help of their techniques of how to get into the idea of what is being talked/written about. This identifying ability makes it possible for them to process the text more effectively. 
-	predictive skills – having identified the topic both readers and listeners guess what is being written or talked about. They try to predict what is coming. Their subsequent reading or listening helps them to confirm their expectations of what they have predicted.
-	skimming – this term means to get a quick idea of the gist of a text while running your eyes over it. It is very useful for the teachers to ask their students to have a quick look at the text before plunging into it for detail to get some specific pieces of information. 
-	scanning – this term means reading or listening for specific information. In contrast to reading and listening for gist we often read or listen to a text because we need specific details. For example, we want to read about the weather or we want to extract some facts from the news. 
-	extensive reading – means reading/listening for pleasure. We use this type of reading/listening while reading an interesting model or a short story or an article taken from a popular paper etc.
-	intensive reading – means reading/listening for detailed information. Sometimes we read/listen to a text in order to understand everything we are reading in detail. We use this technique when we want to understand instructions or directions or when we are preparing for an exam.
-	interpreting texts – this sub-skill is used by readers/listeners if they want to understand the meaning of words beyond the literal meanings. Successful interpretation of this kind depends on shared schemata between the speaker and the listener and the writer or the reader. The question ‘Can you tell me the time?’ is not to be answered in the following way: ‘Yes, I can.’ but the reply must refer to a time expression such as ‘It’s nine o’clock.’
-	inferring opinion and attitude – a good reader/listener will know from various clues he receives, whether the writer or speaker approves of the topic he is discussing, or whether his opinion of the person he is describing is favourable or not. It is based on the recognition of linguistic style.

5.2.1.3. Methodological Principles for Teaching Receptive Skills

Listening is the skill that children acquire first. When students start to acquire a foreign language they can pick it up in many ways. They have a lot of extra curricular sources (songs, films, native speakers, etc) at hand. The same refers to reading, students can benefit from walking in the street when they read various boards or signs written in English as well as English food labels at supermarkets. The reading process can be subdivided into to stages: decoding and interpreting. When we speak about teaching receptive skills we have to emphasize the importance of choosing an age-relevant, interesting or useful content which is practicable in everyday life. Let us focus on the content, purpose of reading/listening and the expectations of readers and listeners. 
5.2.1.3.1. The content of the texts

As it has already been mentioned, we can distinguish instrumental and pleasurable reading/listening. In instrumental reading the usefulness of texts is very significant so we can say that the texts must meet the requirements of communicative language teaching according to which the texts must be experiential which means they should contain very useful and practicable words and expressions for everyday life. Authentic texts must be used so that the learners should not have any difficulty decoding brochures, manuals, instructions in the target country. To meet the demands of pleasurable reading and listening we have to choose stories, articles, novels, etc which are age-relevant and which deal with the problems of the target group of learners. The category of interest includes reading and listening for enjoyment, pleasure and intellectual stimulation. People read/listen to language because they have a purpose for doing so. The purpose may be to discover how to operate a hot-drinks machine or to have a pleasurable reading. The purpose may be to find out what has been happening in the world. 
5.2.1.3.2. Methodological Steps of Developing Receptive Skills

In a lesson when the teacher’s aim is to develop receptive skills the first step to do is to introduce the topic of reading/listening. So the first step to do is planning a warm-up activity. When we want our students to read a text about London for example, we are supposed to show a picture of London or to present a song about the capital of Great Britain etc. Here we have to exploit the following characteristic of language users, he will have expectations about what he is going to read/hear before he does so. A reader who sees the headline ‘Storm in the Houses of Parliament’ expects to read about a political debate in the British Parliament. So when we choose a text we are to activate the predictive skills of our students. The learners are expected to extract the specific information from the text and they are expected to find out one or two facts. That is the reason why we always have to set pre-reading/pre-listening tasks before reading or listening. At this stage the teacher aims to focus the students’ attention on certain facts mentioned in the reading/listening. The next purpose of the teacher will be to sustain the students’ attention while they are reading/listening to the extract. As a while-reading/listening task a teacher can ask the students to underline certain words or phrases or on hearing certain facts or data the students can clap or raise their hands. After reading/listening to a text the students are expected to do some post-reading/listening tasks. They have to get the general picture which means that they have to infer the opinion or attitude of the writer or the speaker. The ability to infer opinion and attitude is largely based on the recognition of linguistic style and its use to achieve appropriate purposes. Another post reading/listening task for the teacher can be to make students deduce meaning from context. The point is that the deducing of meaning is important for a language user who will often mean unknown words and we will try to train students in the same way to guess the meaning of unknown words. Teachers can make students recognise discourse markers, styles and registers as well. It is important for the teachers to develop students’ discourse competence in addition to their linguistic/grammatical competence as well. Teachers are also expected to focus on the intercultural aspects of language teaching. This is the way how social-linguistic competence of students can be developed. For example, London can be compared to Budapest as a post-reading/listening task. On requiring our students to use synonyms, antonyms and circum locution the teachers can develop students’ strategic competence as well. This is the way how we can develop reading/listening skills in a communicative way.
Bloom's Taxonomy has been one of the most influential books in planning reading tasks and has been widely used by American educators in planning their teaching programme. The following categories can be used to develop students’ thinking skills while they are reading a story. This is the way how teachers can make reading a story a holistic activity.
	Category	Thinking process cues	
1.	Knowledge
(remembering and retaining)	Say what you know, what you remember.
What happened in the story?	
2.	Comprehension
( interpreting and understanding)	Describe in your own words, say what it means, explain, compare, relate.
Why did it happen that way!	
3.	Application
(making use of the story)

	How can you use it? Where does it lead to? What would you have done in a situation like this?	
4.	Analysis
(taking apart)	What are the parts, the order, the reason, the solutions. Which part did you like best?	
5.	Synthesis
( putting together)	Develop, create in your own way. What did you think of the story!	
6.	Evaluation
(judging and assessing)	How would you judge it? Will it work?	
In: Bloom, B. S. (1956)

5.2.2. Productive Skills

Writing and speaking belong to the output stage of language teaching process. When students are working on their language production they are operating towards the communicative end of the communication continuum. Language production means that students are supposed to use all or part of language at their disposal to achieve a communicative purpose. 

5.2.2.1. Speaking

1.	Historic Background

Of all the four simplex skills (listening, reading, speaking, writing) speaking seems to be the most important as people who know a language are referred to as ‘speakers’ of that language, as if speaking included all other kinds of knowing a language. The importance of speaking has always been recognized but the various methods put different degrees of emphasis on it. In Cognitive code learning immediate oral communication had little significance while in Direct method immediate communication was a must. In Berlitz method oral communication had commercial purpose so in the above mentioned two methods linguistic structures were subordinated to communicative purposes. In Audio-lingual method based on pattern drills bottom-up approach could be observed. In the pattern drills used by the Audio-lingual method various structures and pronunciation patterns were practised. This consolidation aimed to prepare various speech functions, that is why we can call them functional. For example, Can I have your name? or What’s your name? – structures prepared the  speech function ‘Introduction’. In most methods code should be taught first, then the use of language and not simultaneously. The function of reading aloud and learning by heart have very important role in developing speaking skills and language patterns.

2. Analytic approach to develop speaking skills

Speaking skills can be developed following the bottom-up approach consisting of the following sub-skills:

1.	organic basis of skills (articulation basis) – from sound formation to accurate respiration
2.	rapid speech – to achieve fluent speech at the required speed
3.	parts of speech, tenses, sequence of tenses, word order and other grammatical rules – for a speaker it is necessary to have language competence including the categories mentioned above
4.	collocations – a competent speaker has to be aware of the collocations used in the target language e.g. expect a baby, wait for the bus
5.	stress, intonation, rhythm – belong to the pronunciation close to that of native speakers language learners are supposed to acquire, native like pronunciation which makes their speaking comprehensible
6.	speech functions – students are expected to be aware of language patterns used in various communicative situations such as greetings, introduction, inviting guests, finding the way, etc.
7.	gestures, non-verbal means – in addition to verbal communication a person who wants to communicate, is supposed to use non-verbal means as well such as gestures, facial expressions, etc.
8.	compensation strategies – while focusing on developing speaking skills teachers are expected to prepare students for compensating their lack of knowledge in the act of speech, for example, using synonyms, antonyms, circum locutions, etc.
9.	cohesion, coherence – if the speaker wants to deliver a speech, an oral presentation, he is expected to connect the sentences and the paragraphs to make the text cohesive.

3. Conditions and interactions in speaking

Speaking goes on according to certain rules and time limits of coding and decoding which can be called processing condition. Speakers use certain strategies to overcome their difficulties with rapid speech so they use elliptic sentences if they want to save time. They can hesitate this way. Another condition between people communicating is reciprocity condition which covers routines, negotiation skills. The partners in a dialogue need negotiation skills which mean managing discourse. They have to be aware of various techniques for turn-taking and processing discourse. We must teach action- response, what we mean by preferred, not preferred responses, etc.

4. Types of speech

According to the persons participating in the act of speech we can distinguish three types of speech: monologue, dialogue and discourse. In a monologue there is only one participant: the person speaking about something or presenting something. In a dialogue there are two participants: a person giving information and his partner receiving information. In a discourse there are more than two participants talking about a topic.

5. How to develop speaking skills

There are various types of speaking activities such as: 
1.	responsive performance (questions-answers) – guessing games
2.	imitative performance (repetition) – memory games/look, listen and repeat/songs, chants/retelling a story
3.	intensive performance (drills) – reading aloud
4.	extensive performance (monologue) – retelling a story/picture description
5.	drama activities (acting out, role play, simulation) – listen and participate

6. Popular activities to develop speaking skills
•	Questions-answers – students are expected to spot the differences between two pictures
•	Picture cues can be used to make students describe pictures and drawings, they can be asked to sequence pictures in chronological order etc. 
•	Role play, acting out – means: repeating the words of certain characters in a story while role play means to add something new, individual to the words of the characters in the story
•	Miming – gives only a prompt for the students to talk about
•	Simulation – is a problem-solving activity in which several students can take part
•	Memory games – are very important for developing students’ thinking skills as well as their proficiency in English
•	Jigsaw tasks
•	Twenty Questions (barkochba)
•	 Interviews – students can make interviews with the author of a story or the with the main character of the story, etc
•	For and Against (debates) – students can be prepared for arguing for and against something
•	Projects – certain projects must be given to groups of students so that they can learn how to plan a city for example, or how to make an itinerary of a journey etc.; during these activities they will learn how to share responsibilities and how to cooperate with each other
•	Monologues (with special focus on unity, cohesion, coherence) to develop discourse competence – can be a welcome speech or a speech of a politician to encourage people to vote fro him, etc.

7. Problems of developing speaking skills

The lack of quality control makes developing speaking skills difficult because it is very difficult to set up clear criteria for assessment. English teachers must be authentic though some of them have never been to a country in which English is spoken so it is a requirement for them to give authentic texts to the students. It is always a difficult dilemma for the teachers what to focus on fluency or accuracy. If your student is fluent, s/he will not pay much attention to accuracy though accuracy is important for passing the message. Each English lesson must be intercultural though a lot of teachers have not spent any time in an English speaking country.

5.2.2.2. Writing

While speech has a greater range of non-verbal means to express meaning writing will need a greater accuracy as no immediate feedback is given to the writer. Writing is more precise and it should be more accurate than speech. 

1. Historical background

There are various stages of writing. At the first stage writing is a mechanic process during which all the technical aspects of writing can be acquired. The second stage of writing can be called teaching composition which practically means individual creative work. Translation used to belong to this stage. In the renaissance, handwriting had a very important role. In the Middle Ages teaching writing and spelling could not be separated. At the second stage of writing which means individual style and register there are four steps to follow: transcribing (copying), rewriting (changing of the original sentence into another structure), imitation (imitating certain techniques of poets or writers) and then comes creative writing which is an individual activity. In the 20th century, after WWII all the methods dealt with developing writing skills. In the first three decades after WWII the methodology of teaching English was interested in the product and not the process of writing. In the Audio-lingual method Byrne (1979) dealt with writing though the classical Audio-lingual method wanted to develop all the four simplex skills but they thought that the more students write the higher their academic level will be. Some methodologists thought that writing is only a practice of grammar. Byrne in his methodology distinguished controlled writing from semi-controlled composition (guided composition) for which sentence transformations were favoured for example, matching two halves of sentences, re-writing, extension of sentences and simplifying sentences. In the end of the sixties something new started referring to complex texts to the complete discourse. This new approach (contrastive rhetorics) states that discourse competence is culture specific. It was the first step in teaching writing when the focus of teaching English fell from the result of writing to the process of writing. By the 90s it had been achieved that language teachers accepted that writing was a very complex thinking process which could be taught and learnt but it had to meet a lot of requirements. For example, the legal background of rhetorics, cultural awareness, rewriting and revision. But we could not miss invention and creativity either. The teacher is supposed to provide students with techniques making it possible for him to meet modern demands.

2. Sub-skills of writing

1.	Spelling – is a difficult sub-skill for Hungarian learners as pronunciation does not coincide with the various ways of spelling.
2.	Punctuation – in English is completely different from the system in Hungarian as commas have special functions, for example, in relative clauses.
3.	Orthography – observing orthographical rules is very important in writing, whenever we teach a new language structure we are supposed to teach the necessary orthographical rules simultaneously with it.
4.	Writing at the required speed – writing as motoric process must be done at the required speed.
5.	Linguistic competence – which means ‘knowledge of lexical items and rules of morphology, syntax, sentence grammar, semantics and phonology’ (Canale and Swain 1980:29). 
6.	How to make a text cohesive, well-structured – so as to achieve this aim we need discourse competence which is the ability to connect sentences, to form a meaningful whole out of a series of utterances .
7.	How to focus on the relevant message – a writer should be able to choose the most significant parts from a lot of pieces of information. 
8.	How to write in the expected style and register – while writing a text the author is expected to be aware of the features of various styles and registers so as to make an appropriate piece of writing (Savignon 1983: 40-41). 

3. Stages of teaching writing
	
While teaching writing teachers are supposed to keep the principle of graduality. In several manuals on methodology developing writing skills was treated in a similar way. According to Rivers (1978) in the first stage writing is a mechanic process which he called ‘writing down’. The next stage would be writing in the language which revealed the grammatical, lexical and pragmatic rules and the awareness of the rules above. At the production stage sentences and paragraphs were formed. The last stage of developing writing skills was free or expressive writing which meant writing compositions in which a language learner could use the language code with necessary awareness and for a certain communicative purpose. Byrne (1979) distinguished the following stages: early stages which meant basic level, the next stage of his system was developing skills which meant the stage between basic and intermediate levels followed by the stage named contexts for writing which was equal to the intermediate level. The last stage of writing was free writing according to Byrne. Gorman (1979) also distinguished four stages of developing writing skills: controlled writing, directed writing, guided writing and independent writing. Nowadays we also define four stages of teaching writing namely:

1.	Controlled – controlled writing activities are copying and dictation. It is a good idea to use copying in a way which encourages students to think: this means using crosswords or matching pictures with captions or sequencing sentences. Teachers are expected to choose texts either for copying or for dictation which are age relevant and interesting. Delayed copying is a challenging task during which the teacher writes a word or a sentence on the board, gives the students a few seconds to look at it and the rubs it out and sees if the students can write it down. Dictation is a very safe type of exercise if you can keep the language elementary and simple, for beginners dictation should be short and interesting it should have a purpose and be connected to work which has gone before or comes after. With the ‘messenger game’ we can make dictation more interesting. Several students choose a messenger who will listen to the dictation and tries to memorise as many words as s/he can while the other members of the group are sitting far from the teacher. Having understood a part of the text the messenger will go to his/her group mates to dictate the text which has been heard. So this is the way how teachers can integrate all the four simplex skills in a complex activity.
2.	Semi–controlled – fill-in exercises are useful activities, especially at the beginner stages. They do not require much active production of language, since most of the language is given but they require understanding. Try to use meaningful exercises. Fill-in exercises can be used for lexical and grammatical practice. The purpose of guided writing at word level is to make students practise spelling and learn new vocabulary, for example, learners can make lists or personal dictionaries, they can complete labels to pictures or classify words under headings. The purpose of guided writing at sentence level is to make students practise spelling, punctuation, new vocabulary and structures, for example, they are supposed to write captions for pictures, speech bubbles for cartoons or characters in a story or write sentences based on completed charts, for example, surveys or questionnaires. Students can match halves of sentences and copy them. Students can sequence sentences and copy them, they can be expected to correct mistakes in written questions or they can answer the questions.
3.	Free – All free writing activities are to be prepared with warm-up and pre-writing activities. Pre-writing activities can be talking or reading about the subject, students can make word stars, for example. They are asked to write down all the words and the expressions they can think in connection with the topic. Picture descriptions or writing a report or an article can be very good post-reading or post-listening exercises. The only thing we have to focus on is to prepare this task very thoroughly. In addition to the activities mentioned before teachers should give explanations of words and expressions, a sample or a draft to the composition before expecting the students to write an independent piece of work. 
4.	Expressive/Creative – this type of writing activities needs a lot of creativity and imagination. Students can be asked to write a short story or a poem, or an article based on their previous experience.  

4. The importance of writing process at compositions and essays

In most cases teachers give a title to the students and ask them without any preparation to write an essay or a composition. Though there are methodological steps leading students to essay writing. As a first step teachers should lead in the topic either with a picture or with some introductory questions. Students could be asked to come up with certain ideas about the topic in question. This step can be called brainstorming. The ideas suggested by the students must be put on the board and then classified according to certain criteria, for example, in case of argumentative essays arguments for a principle must be enumerated in a column while counter arguments must be listed in another one. This way we can prepare the next step which is composing. Based on the listed arguments and counter arguments the students are supposed to make an outline of the composition together. The next step to do is making a first draft followed by editing. At this stage it is very important to call the students’ attention to proper organisation and to give them some prompts on how to make a text cohesive. Discourse markers and linking words must be in focus here. The last stage of writing process will be making a final version. Only this step should be made at home.
A piece of writing should contain certain parts: introduction, body and conclusion. Depending on the type of essay the basic parts mentioned above can be varied. In argumentative essays, for example, after the introduction of a problem background information and thesis are given. As a second stage supporting ideas should follow which means reasons to support the thesis, one paragraph for each reason. Refutation will follow this part. After refutation a proper conclusion must be given the function of this is to offer solution or a recommendation. It is important to remember that this part should not bring up a new topic. For further information see Csölle, A. – Kormos, J. (2003).

5. What to focus on?

While writing an essay or a composition students must focus on unity. It means that each sentence in the paragraph relates to the same topic and develops the same controlling idea. Each paragraph within an essay has to be directly related to the thesis. If any sentence or paragraph does not relate to or develop that idea, it is irrelevant and should be omitted from the paragraph or essay. The next term to keep in mind while writing an essay is coherence. A coherent paragraph/essay contains sentences that are logically arranged and flow smoothly. Cohesion is the next term we have to define here. By cohesion we mean the linguistic devices with the help of which the writer makes the text coherent. The strongest cohesive devices include pronominal references (e.g. s/he, them, it) and conjunctions (e.g. and, but and other discourse markers and connectives) (Csölle, A. et al 2003: 37-40). Discourse markers and connectives (mostly adverbs) may be used to signal relationships both within paragraphs and between paragraphs e.g. also, besides, in addition express addition, in contrast, nevertheless contrast. The term styles has something to do with formality. When we speak about formal style we mean well-organised texts which contain full and mainly multiple sentences, passive voice, indirect speech, sophisticated vocabulary, no contraction and no abbreviation or idioms. By informal style we mean not well-organised texts full of elliptic or simple sentences, idioms, contracted forms, active voice, direct sentences and colloquial vocabulary. While making up a composition, writers should take registers into consideration which are commonly identified by certain phonological variants, vocabulary, idioms and other expressions that are associated with different occupational or socioeconomic groups. Registers enable people to identify with a particular group and to maintain solidarity. Register is also sometimes associated with social class distinctions, but here the line between register and dialect is difficult to define (Brown: 1994). 
5.2.2.3. Translation

Translation is said to belong to the so-called fifth skill, it is one of the complex skills. Its aim is to mediate between two languages, to comprehend the message or information in one language and to communicate the same content in the target language. Unfortunately translation is not very popular with language teachers because they think it to be boring and a non-communicative activity. This way of thinking can be observed in the Hungarian examination system because more and more monolingual exams are introduced to the detriment of bilingual exams. In the new GCSE exam introduced in 2005 translation skills are not tested at all though in international cooperation and especially in the European Union the role of translation keeps increasing. 

1. Arguments against translation

According to certain colleagues, translation is not popular because it is text-bound and confined to only two skills – reading and writing –; it is not a communicative activity because it involves no oral interaction. They argue that it is not suitable for classroom work because the students must do the writing on their own; it is also time-consuming and wasteful. Usually it is associated with ‘different language’, with literary and scientific texts and it is not suitable for the general needs of the language learner. The widespread use of literary-type texts for translation seems to us both an anachronistic and wasteful activity. While teaching translation the teacher is supposed to use the mother tongue and this is not desirable and as a last argument it is said to be a boring activity. 
In this volume we would like to give the counterarguments to the statements above. Translation does not have to be a lone, pointless struggle between the student and the text. A lot of other approaches are possible. Translation can be introduced purposefully and imaginatively into the language learning programme. Translators will always be necessary, without them there would be no summit talks no cooperation in science and engineering, no international law, no Olympic Games and no translated versions of famous pieces of literature. 

2. Some arguments for translation

By making students translate texts teachers can develop their communicative competence. While learners are comparing two languages they can discover a lot of linguistic rules, they will discover the appropriate use of certain words and expressions. Their reading and writing skills will develop as well and even speaking skills can be improved by setting a good warm-up activity before translation and if teachers organise translation as group- or pairwork, students will learn how to cooperate with each other as well. All these facts are to prove the fact that translation develops the grammatical competence of learners. 
From a text to be translated language learners can acquire a lot of pieces of information either about the target culture or about their own culture. For example, the City in London refers to the downtown so it cannot be translated into ‘város’. Translators are supposed to be aware of the cultural backgrounds of a text so this way learners’ socio-linguistic competence will be developed as well. People translating various authentic texts must be familiar with the various styles and registers. This knowledge will also support their socio-linguistic competence and language awareness. In Chapter II, where the features of communicative language teaching were analysed we mentioned that communicative language teaching must be intercultural. Translation also meets this requirement as during translation translators keep in counter with the intercultural aspects of the target language. A good translator has to be aware of various discourse markers, linking words and the ability of structuring a text. This way language learners’ discourse competence will also be developed through translating. The fourth component of communicative competence is strategic competence which means that students are supposed to find the necessary and most suitable synonyms, antonyms and circumlocutions. While translating a text the students’ strategic competence will also be developed. As through translation we can develop all the four components of communicative competence and we can make language teaching intercultural, holistic, experiential by using translation tasks we can state that translation is a communicative activity.

3. How to teach translation

First of all teachers are supposed to select texts which are age-relevant, meet the learners’ fields of interest, which are useful and manageable by the students. In a lesson devoted to translation the warm-up activity must be devoted to the topic in the text to be translated. Teachers can start a lesson with a joke or a humorous story so as to lower students’ anxiety and to give prompts for brainstorming about the topic in question. After this lead-in phase, students are expected to get familiar with the complete text so that they can understand the context as a whole. Teachers are supposed to focus on the problem bits of the text to explain the difficult structures, expressions and phrases occurring in it. The preparatory work is organised as a frontal activity so that students can get the same input. The lockstep stage is followed by groupwork in which each group is given a paragraph of the text to be translated. The groups are supposed to complete the task which is translating the given paragraph in a limited period of time. Time limit must be set so that students should not waste a lot of time. While working in groups they will learn how to cooperate with each other and how to accept their mates’ ideas and suggestions. This way group cohesion and team spirit are also developed. Students will also learn how to cope with a challenging task which will develop their metacognitive strategies. In the next stage of the lesson groups are supposed to compare their versions and to make the text coherent by linking the paragraphs with the necessary discourse markers. This way, they will learn how to structure a text which is usually a weak point of a language learner. After this stage students are supposed to talk about the content of the text already translated. 
If teachers follow the recommended steps of making students translate, the lesson devoted to developing translation skills will not be boring and will develop the communicative competence of the students. 

5.2.2.4. Interpreting

Interpreting is said to be the sixth language skill (Bárdos 2005: 21), it is one of the complex skills, as learners need all the four simplex language skills so that they can interpret texts from one language into the other. Interpreting needs a lot of sub-skills as all the sub-skills mentioned in connection with receptive skills and the ones treated under the title Speaking are necessary for interpreting a text. In the skills and sub-skills mentioned above a good interpreter needs short-and long-term memory as well. Good concentration, quick reflexes and divided attention are also inevitable for a person who wants to work as an interpreter. Two types of interpreting are distinguished: consecutive and conference interpreting. Consecutive interpreting means that the utterances delivered by the speaker are interpreted delayed after the message having been finished. Conference interpreting means that the utterances are being delivered in L1 simultaneously with the interpreted version of the message. For the latter type of interpreting a divided attention of very high level is necessary.
This skill can be developed in classroom situations as well, though among language teachers there are a lot of opponents of integrating this skill into school curriculum. They have various reasons for objecting to teaching interpreting: some of them are against bilingual teaching; they prefer monolingual language lessons, as they think that swapping the languages will disturb the students’ mental process. Others are not prepared for unexpected situations. Life, however, is full of unexpected situations in which language learners are expected to interpret between two parties having two different languages. As Hungary has become a country open to a lot of tourists and guest workers from abroad, our learners will face more and more situations in which interpreting will be needed. So as to make our language teaching experiential, practicable teachers are expected to prepare students for unexpected moments in their lives. 

How to develop the skill of interpreting?

Teachers are expected to plan drama activities into language classes where students are expected to interpret messages between a foreigner and a Hungarian native speaker or between a Hungarian tourist and an English speaking partner abroad. To complete this task, learners will need a lot of empathy and risk-taking teachers are supposed to develop. The principle of graduality must be taken into consideration here so teachers should start this type of activity with beginners. First students are expected to interpret very short dialogues and while learners are studying the target language at higher and higher level they will be expected to interpret more and more complex texts. The most popular activities for interpreting will be role play activities and simulations in which minimum three parties are necessary: a presenter, an interpreter and a target person or a target group. For example, the sightseeing tour led by an English guide can be interpreted for Hungarian tourists or some business partners having business talks will need an interpreter.
Situations like the ones mentioned above must always be prepared by the teachers, they have to put an emphasis on the language structures, expressions, etc. before setting the tasks. Students must be practised interpreting in pairs or small groups before presenting it in public in front of the whole class. Interpreting as well as translation is a complex skill requiring a lot of sub-skills and a great amount of awareness of cultural background. 
Though a lot of language teachers are against including complex skills into their syllabi, it is highly recommended for the teachers to integrate them into their everyday work as they are very useful and through them teachers can develop many kinds of sub-skills and language awareness.

Revision questions and tasks

1.	What are the common features of reading and listening? What is their
         relevance for teaching? 
2.	Describe the sub-skills of receptive skills. 
3.	Why and how can authentic materials be used by students so that they can
         recognize various styles and registers? 
4.	Describe some activities that can be used as pre-, while- or post
         reading/listening tasks.
5.	What are the typical features of natural conversation/speaking? What is 
         their relevance for teaching? 
6.	At what stages of lesson is accuracy/fluency in focus? 
7.	What are the functions of the various stages of output?
8.	Describe 3 accuracy/fluency-oriented activities.
9.	How do you prepare writing an essay? 
10.	What do you mean by coherence, cohesion and discourse markers? 
11.	What do we mean by integrating skills? 
12.	Explain the different types of input and output.

6. Vocabulary

According to Jeremy Harmer (2003) language structures make up the skeleton of a language while vocabulary is the flesh which means that both are equally important and independent. In communicative language teaching structural accuracy is less important in effective communication than choosing the right word. In earlier methods vocabulary was seen as incidental to the main purpose of language teaching. It was not the main focus of language teaching. This trend has come to an end and recently methodologists have increasingly been turning their attention to vocabulary. Modern language course books concentrate equally on structures and vocabulary and we should do the same in our teaching process.

6.1. Selecting Vocabulary

While teachers select vocabulary to teach they generally take two factors into consideration. The first one is frequency – how frequently the word is used by native speakers. Nowadays computers are used to determine how frequently a word is used. Words which are used more often are taught first but this is not a direct order. There is, for example, a word ‘way’ which is the fifth commonest word in English, but we do not teach it fifth. The second important criterion we have to take into consideration while selecting vocabulary is coverage. By coverage we mean how many things are covered with a given word. A word is more useful if it covers a lot of things than if it has only one specific meaning. For example, the word book occurs in a lot of compounds such as ‘notebook’, ‘textbook’, ‘bookcase’, ‘bookshelf’, ‘bookkeeping’, etc. Authors of course books select vocabulary items on the basis of these principles. If teachers teach extra vocabulary, they take other criteria into consideration. These criteria are the following:

-	if the word is useful to them,
-	if it fits into certain groups of words, topics that they teach,
-	if it can be used with the structures, functions the students already know
               (e.g. reporting verbs must be presented before reported speech is taught).

6.2. What does it mean to know a word?

To know a word consists of many factors. We can say that the learner knows a word if he knows its

1. meaning 

Words may have different meanings depending on the context. Teachers have to teach only one meaning at a time. We can say that students know the meaning if they understand it in context and know its equivalent in their mother tongue. Sometimes words have meaning in relation to other words. In this case we speak about sense relations. We have to distinguish superordinates from hyponyms. Superordinates are so-called umbrella terms such as ‘vegetable’. ‘Vegetable’ is the superordinate of ‘carrots’, ‘potatoes’, etc. which are hyponyms. Synonyms and antonyms are further two terms we have to clarify here. A synonym refers to a word that has the same meaning as another word, for example, ‘table’ and ‘desk’. The term antonym refers to a word that means the opposite of another word, for example, ‘regular’ and ‘irregular’. We speak about denotation if we mean the first meaning of the word. By connotation we mean an additional idea or emotion that a word suggests to do, that is not part of its usual meaning, for example, the negative connotations of the word ‘feminist’, or ‘plump’ is a euphemism of the word ‘fat’. 

2. use 

Students need to be able to produce the word in the right context, they need to be aware of how the meaning is expanded or limited depending on how the word is used e.g. idioms cannot be understood if you know all the words in it, because it has a special meaning, for example, ‘pull one’s leg’ cannot be understood if you analyse its components. Students are supposed to know the collocations of the words, for example, we say ‘headache’ but we cannot say ‘*legache’ but ‘pain in the leg’. Students need to know the style and register of the target word or expression if a word is used only in colloquial expressions or in formal style if it is polite, or rude.

3. word formation

Word formation is in other words morphology. English words can often be used both as nouns and verbs which makes it a bit more bit difficult to teach which part of speech they belong to. When we speak about word formation we mean the grammatical context according to which the word changes, for example, present participles can refer to the past and to the present. Students have to know how suffixes and prefixes change the meaning of the stem, for example, ‘polite’, ‘impolite’. 

4. spelling

We can say that the students know the word if they can spell it properly. 

5. word grammar

The use of certain words can trigger the use of certain grammatical patterns, for example, in case of nouns the categories of countable and uncountable are very important factors. Uncountable nouns cannot be used in plural forms. In case of verbs transitivity plays an important role in forming passive structures. If an adjective is converted into an adverb, its position in a sentence will define the fact what part of speech it belongs to, for example, ‘The fast train goes fast.’ The first ‘fast’ is an adjective while the second ‘fast’ is an adverb.

6. phonology

It is important for the learner to know how the word is pronounced.

As a conclusion, we have to state that knowing a word is more than understanding its meaning/meanings. When we teach a new word we normally do not tell all these pieces of information about a word to students because word grammar is taught when we teach grammar, the use or register of a word is taught through practice, collocations and idioms are usually treated as separate vocabulary items and they are taught separately. If learners know the meaning, use and grammar of a word this word will belong to the students’ active vocabulary.

6.3. Active and Passive Vocabulary

By passive knowledge we mean that students are able to recognise the word but they are not able to produce it. At beginner and elementary levels most words are active. As students’ vocabulary is limited they learn only words which are frequently used and have a broad meaning so they will constantly reappear, students will practise them frequently. At more advanced levels some words are active and some words will belong to the students’ passive vocabulary. The status of vocabulary items is not permanent because if words are not frequently used, they may slip into the passive store and a passive word may become active as well. The teacher is supposed to decide not to deal with some words at the production stage and this way they will belong to the passive store. The fact that a word is passive or active also depends on how memorable it is to the students. For example, the word ‘cuddle’ is a memorable word for the students because it occurred in a funny text and students liked its sound so it belongs to the active store. As a consequence, teachers should make words memorable for the students, get them to interact with the word and this is the key to effective presentation. The other way of rendering the word into the active store is to make students practise it in an active way. 

6.4. Presenting Vocabulary
	
There are three important stages of vocabulary teaching. The first of them is conveying meaning. The way of conveying meaning depends on the type of word. Visual presentation can be used if we want to present something concrete such as verbs like ‘climbing’, nouns such as ‘a doctor’ or adjectives such as ‘slim’ or ‘fat’. Various visual aids can be used at presentation: pictures, drawings, real objects, video extracts, acting out and miming. The other important way of presenting vocabulary is verbal presentation. Teachers can use word relations such as antonyms (slim – fat), synonyms (drink coffee – have coffee), lexical sets in another word semantic mapping (the word ‘clothes’ is in the centre and you can join a lot of pieces of clothes to the superordinate such as ‘trousers’, ‘skirt’, ‘fur coat’, etc.). Further ways of verbal presentation are giving definitions or descriptions or putting the target word into context. When teachers are presenting new words they usually use different memory strategies such as creating mental linkages (grouping, associating, placing new words into context), they can apply images and sounds (using imagery semantic mapping, using key words, representing sounds in memory) and employing actions (using physical response or sensations) and using mechanical techniques (rods). Teachers presenting new vocabulary are supposed to take the various learner types into consideration. It is not enough to present a new word in one way with one technique but several different techniques must be used so that the meaning of the word can be grasped by different learner types such as visual, auditive, kinaesthetic learners. In addition to taking the learner types into consideration, the teachers have to personalise the new vocabulary item to make it more memorable for the students. If teachers use the private context of the students, the learners will get more motivated, so the new word will stick to their memories.
The next stage of teaching new vocabulary is checking understanding. Teachers can ask students to translate the new word into Hungarian or students can give synonyms, antonyms, definitions of the word so that the teacher can see whether the students have understood the meaning of the new word. 
The last stage of vocabulary teaching is consolidation consisting of different types of practice such as controlled, semi-controlled and free practice. During this stage the values and connotations of words must be clarified. At the controlled and semi-controlled practice stages language accuracy is very important so mistakes in usage must be corrected. The third stage of consolidation is free practice which can be a role play activity, a language competition or description of somebody, etc. At this stage delayed or gentle correction is used. The most popular activities are gap-filling, writing a story, matching or sorting exercises, problem solving activities and discussions. 
Another way of teaching vocabulary goes on by discovery activities. Students are asked to discover the meaning of a word. This technique is more suitable for more advanced students because discovery activities presuppose some knowledge of language, some experience in learning it. Teachers must not forget the fact that constant revision of the same vocabulary items is necessary so the recycling of new words is inevitable. By recycling vocabulary we mean regular repetition of the same vocabulary items at higher and higher levels expanding the core vocabulary with more and more new words belonging to the topic.

6.5. Using dictionaries
	
Students need training in use of dictionaries, bilingual or monolingual ones, which will help them understand the structure, the abbreviations, the given information and how to find expressions. Bilingual dictionaries are very useful for the students to get the clear meaning of the words, on the other hand, monolingual dictionaries will suggest how they should use the target word in sentence.

Revision questions and tasks

1.	What does it mean to know a word? 
2.	In what ways can you present new words? 
3.	Explain the difference between passive and active vocabulary? 
4.	How can you store new vocabulary? 
5.	Describe some ways of practising vocabulary.
6.	Mention 3 vocabulary practice games.

7. GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURES

In communicative language teaching the content or the message is always more important than the form or structure. The presentation of a structure must always be done in meaningful context. Structures must not be presented in themselves only according to their forms. When choosing the structure the teachers must take the following criteria into consideration: the target structure should fit in the forty-five minutes (it is impossible to teach the various ways of presenting ‘future’ in one lesson), both form and meaning should be clear and fit the students’ level. Teachers are not to teach the various uses of one tense in a lesson because they will confuse students. One use of a tense should be made clear in a situation and this clarification should be done in context. Various charts are useful but the first introductions of a new structure must always be done in a situation. First teachers have to introduce the meaning and use of the structure. It is not enough for the teacher to explain what a new language structure means (e.g. the past form of the verb) students also need to get an idea of how the new language is used by native speakers (e.g. the past form of the verb is used in situation when we talk about what happened at a certain point of time). The best way to explain usage is to present language in context. The characteristics of a good context are the following:

1.	Students should understand the new language from the context.
2.	It should be interesting for students (a good presentation is memorable for the students).
3.	The context should provide a background for the use of language e.g. it should not only provide a model sentence but also opportunity for students to make their own sentences (e.g. students are supposed to speak about their adventures in the past, this way personalisation can take place). 
4.	The teachers need to show how the new language structure is formed and how it works. It can be done in the form of a presentation using grammatical terminology. At lower levels it might be very difficult for students unless it is done through a lot of examples and perhaps through translation. At lower levels grammatical information may be given in a simpler way using example sentences to use grammatical patterns or by making a chart.

7.1. The presentation of structures
	
When we present a structure, it is important to show what the structure means and how it is used by giving examples; show clearly how the structure is formed, so that students can use it to make sentences of their own. There are two types of presentation: teacher-led presentation (the overt way or explicit way of presentation) and discovery technique (the covert or implicit way of presentation). 
I. The general model for the teacher-led presentation of structures

1.	Lead-in phase – The context is introduced and the meaning or use of the new language is demonstrated. Jeremy Harmer (2003) distinguishes three types of context:
a.	the students’ world – such as a classroom, their homes, etc.;
b.	outside world – such as stories, situations which can be simulated or real;
c.	formulated information – e.g. timetables, statistical charts, etc.
The meaning of the target structure can be presented 
a.	visually – the simplest and clearest way to present a structure is often to show it directly, using things the students can see: objects, the classroom, yourself, the students themselves, pictures e.g. by pointing to the ceiling if you want to teach the structure ‘The ceiling is too high to reach.’, 
b.	through a situation – it is not always possible to show the meaning of a structure visually, using what is in the class. Another way of showing meaning is to think of a situation from outside the class in which the structure could naturally be used. The situation can be real or imaginary. E.g. ‘There is no point in … ing.’ with the situation ‘He lives nearby so there is no point in going there by bus.’
c.	by contrasting structures – Sometimes we need not only to present single structures, but to show the difference between two structures; this is especially important when there is a contrast between two structures in English which does not exist in the students’ own language. There are two basic ways of doing this: by giving examples and by giving simple explanations e.g. ‘I have seen that film.’ vs. ‘I saw that film last week.’ (Doff 1990) 
At this stage students may become aware of certain language concepts about the new structure (e.g. with simple past the action is finished, it happened in the past, at a certain point of time). If teachers want to make the concept of the past comprehensible for the students, they can bring two photos of the same person or city into the classroom, one of them taken ten years ago, and the other one taken recently. Another way of introducing this concept is by using a calendar with the help of which we can present certain days belonging to the past.
2.	Elicitation – The aim of elicitation for the teachers is to learn whether students can produce the new language, if they have already learnt it, if they are familiar with the structure, there is no need for practice but instead of practising the teachers have to focus on the problems students have with it (e.g. they mix up ‘watch’ with ‘look at’).
3.	Explanation – At this stage the teacher shows how the new language is formed (grammar explanation and charts can be provided), draws the students’ attention to the characteristic features of form (e.g. past forms, exceptions, irregular verbs), pronunciation, contracted forms. The teacher may check if students have understood the new language. 
4.	Accurate reproduction (controlled and semi-controlled practice) – At this phase students are asked to repeat and practise model sentences. The teacher makes sure that the students can form the new language correctly and pronounce it; the focus is on accuracy so the teacher has to correct all the mistakes. Choral and then individual repetition should be used. This stage must be short. There are various types of mechanical drills: substitutional 
e.g. 	Peter went … .	 to the shop/to school.
 and transformational
e.g. 	It is sure that Peter went to school.
	Peter must have … . 	(gone to school)
5.	Immediate creativity/production stage – The aim of this stage is to see if students have understood the structure in controlled activity so students are expected to write or say their own sentences based on clues (e.g. words, pictures, etc.). If students make too many mistakes, the teacher needs to go back to the previous stages but if they give a good performance, the teacher may go on to the further activity. Meaningful drills are used here.
Rules should be taught deductively which means that the teacher gives the rule and students have to use it. This way of presentation is to be used with adult students as they need detailed explanation by the teacher.

II. The general model for the discovery technique

The basic idea here is to give students a listening or reading text or some examples of English sentences and ask them to discover how the language works. The teacher gets the students to do most of the work. This is the so-called inductive teaching, when the teacher gives examples and students formulate the rule. It is very often used with young learners or students at more advanced levels. Young learners are given nursery rhymes, songs from which they can acquire certain grammatical structures and they can use them without any teacher’s explanation. They acquire grammatical structures as lexical units. On the other hand, this technique can be used with more advanced students as they are able to discover a pattern on the basis of their earlier experience.

1.	Lead-in – The function of this stage is to introduce context and raise students’ interest but instead of elicitation students work in pairs or individually and work on a task. After the stage mentioned above the explanation stage follows.
2.	Explanation – It means that the teacher discusses with the students what they have found. After this discussion the teacher may go on with making students practise the target structure at two levels: 
3.	accurate reproduction – see T-led presentation 
4.	immediate creativity – see T-led presentation

Steps of Presenting Structures

Teacher-led presentation	Discovery technique	
lead-in	lead-in	
elicitation	discovery	
explanation	explanation	
accurate reproduction	accurate reproduction	
immediate creativity	immediate creativity	

Advantages/Disadvantages of Presenting Structures

Teacher-led presentation	Discovery technique	
advantages	disadvantages	advantages	disadvantages	
- faster and 
        easier	- the teacher is in
    control all the 
    time – dictatorial	- the students
   are more 
   involved
- more 
   memorable	-	takes longer
-	not suitable for all structures
-	difficult for beginners	

Revision questions and tasks

1.	Describe the general model of teaching structures. 
2.	What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of teacher-led
               presentation and those of discovery techniques? 
3.	Give some arguments for and against covert and overt ways of grammar 
               teaching.
4.	What is the difference between controlled and free practice?
5.	Mention 3 language games that have a structural focus.

8. PRONUNCIATION

Most English teachers make students study grammar and vocabulary, practise functional dialogues but they make little attempt to teach pronunciation in any overt way. They may feel they have too much to do and they may claim that without a formal pronunciation syllabus and without specific pronunciation teaching, many students seem to acquire pronunciation in the course of their studies. Pronunciation teaching not only makes students aware of different sounds and sound features, but can also improve their speaking. Pronunciation allows students to get over serious intelligibility problems. The question of what aim to achieve may arise in connection with teaching pronunciation. Many students do not want to sound like native speakers, they wish to be speakers of English as an international language and it does not imply trying to sound exactly like someone from Britain or Canada. (Harmer 2003: 184). It has become customary for English teachers to consider intelligibility as the prime goal of pronunciation teaching. It means that students should be able to use pronunciation which is good enough for them to be understood. If their pronunciation is not up to this standard, there is a serious danger that they will fail to communicate effectively. So the aim of teaching pronunciation is to require our students to work towards an intelligible pronunciation rather than achieve a native-speaker quality.

8.1. When to teach pronunciation?

Teachers have to decide when to include pronunciation teaching into lesson sequences. There are several options to choose from: 
- some teachers devote whole lesson sequences to pronunciation – Sometimes students may listen to a longer tape, working on listening skills before moving to the pronunciation part of the sequence;
- discrete slots – some teachers separate bits of pronunciation work into lesson  sequences; over a period of weeks they work on all the individual phonemes either separately or in contrasting pairs;
- integrated phases – many teachers get students to focus on pronunciation issues as an integral part of a lesson; if necessary, having students work on sounds that are especially prominent or getting them to imitate intonation patterns for question for example; when we model words and phrases we draw our students’ attention to the way they are said;
- opportunistic teaching – teachers may stray from their original plan when lesson realities make this inevitable and teach vocabulary or grammar opportunistically because it has come up.
Many teachers tackle pronunciation in a mixture of ways suggested above. 

8.2. The areas of pronunciation

There are four major areas of pronunciation: the area of individual sounds, that of word stress, intonation and connected speech. If intelligibility is the goal of teaching pronunciation, speakers are to get their message across. For example, [q] and [p] may not cause a lack of intelligibility if they are confused, but being very difficult sounds for Hungarian learners they are often mixed with [T], [S] and [F], so mixing the words ‘free’ and ‘three’ can lead to misunderstanding. Stressing words and phrases correctly is vital if emphasis is to be given to the important parts of messages and if words are to be understood correctly. This area of pronunciation is very difficult for Hungarian learners as the word stress always gets in initial position in Hungarian words while English word stress keeps changing. Different word stresses can lead to the different meanings of the word, for example ‘record, n. [aREKeD]’ and ‘record, v. [RkaKjdD]’. Intonation – the ability to vary the pitch and tune of speech – is also an important meaning carrier. Connected speech will make the speech act fluent and intelligible as a whole. In the following parts of this chapter the problems of each area will be defined and certain recipes of how to teach pronunciation in the given area will be provided. 
8.2.1. Individual sounds
	
Students of English have great difficulty hearing pronunciation features which we want them to reproduce. Speakers of different first languages have problems with different sounds, for example, they cannot distinguish between two sounds or they do not have certain sounds in their mother tongue e.g. [D] and [q]. Students are not familiar with sounds like [W], [E], [i], [p] and [q]. 
	
There are two ways of dealing with this problem: we can show students how sounds are made through demonstration, diagrams or explanation. The other way of presenting its pronunciation is to draw the sounds to their attention every time they appear on a cassette or in the conversation. This is the way how we can train the students’ ears. Teachers can use the minimal pair system through which students can recognise the difference between two similar sounds. 
Contrasting two sounds which are very similar and often confused is a popular way of getting students to concentrate on specific aspects of pronunciation. This activity can be carried out by giving examples, both taken from English or one word taken from English and the other one taken from Hungarian.

a.	vowels
[k], [Id] – compare Br. ‘film’ and Hun. ‘film’. 
[E], [i] – ‘bed’ and ‘bad’
[s], [j], [hd] – ‘cut’, ‘cot’, ‘cart’
[jd], [em] – ‘law’, ‘low’
b.	consonants
[p], [S] – ‘think’, ‘sink’
[q], [D] – ‘this’, ‘dis-’
[W], [V] – ‘west’, ‘vest’
[R] – Hun. ‘park’, Br. ‘park’
[n], [N] – ‘sing’, ‘sin’
[P], [T], [D] – Hun. ‘póló’ and Br. ‘polo’
	
It is possible to work on sounds of English without using any phonetic symbols. For many students – by problems of sound and spelling correspondence – it may make sense to be aware of the different phonemes, and the clearest way of promoting this awareness is to introduce the various symbols. There are other reasons for using phonetic symbols too. Dictionaries give the pronunciation of words in phonetic symbols. Students are usually only asked to recognise rather than produce the different symbols and these symbols are introduced gradually rather than all at once. So, according to most experts on methodology, the knowledge of phonetic symbols is of benefit to students. Teachers are expected to present phonetic symbols simultaneously with presenting the meaning of the new word. So as to identify these symbols, students are expected to listen to cassette recordings and they are expected to practise pronunciation in choral repetition first and then individually. 

8.2.2. Stress
	
Stress is important in individual words, in phrases and in sentences. By shifting it around in a phrase or a sentence we can change emphasis or meaning. A common way of drawing our students’ attention to stress issues is to show where the weak vowel sounds occur in words (rather than focusing on the stressed syllables themselves). We can draw attention to the schwa [e] like in the word ‘photographer [FeaTgGReFe]’. We teach word stress when we present a new word and at the practice stage clapping, tapping are used or students can be asked to underline the stressed syllable. In sentence stress students are supposed to focus on logical stress. Students are supposed to recognise where to put the stress in a new structure. Teachers are supposed to set tasks in which students have to change logical stress according to the types of message. The presentation and practice stages are the same as with teaching word stress. 

8.2.3. Intonation
	
It is important for the teachers to draw their students’ attention to the way native speakers use changes in pitch to convey meaning, to reflect the thematic structure of what they are saying and how to convey mood. A very good practice can be for students to be asked to utter the word ‘yes’ in many different ways. Students are expected to draw arrows under the utterances in English so that they can recognise the various intonation patterns. In methodology, teachers have to be aware of the fact that usually wh-questions are used when teachers want to ask students to speak fluently in the target language. Yes-or-no questions are asked if teachers want to check students listening or reading comprehension. The third major type of questions is alternative questions the aim of which is to make students use a new word or a new grammatical structure. Hungarian intonation is monotonous compared to English. There are several ways to teach intonation: students are expected to make dialogues without words or many teachers use arrows on the board and arm movements which draw patterns in the air to demonstrate intonation. Exaggeration can also be amusing.

8.2.4. Connected speech and fluency
	
Good pronunciation does not just mean saying individual words or individual sounds correctly. The sounds of words change when they come into contact with each other. We have to draw students’ attention to it while teaching pronunciation. Fluency is helped by having students say phrases and sentences as quickly as possible, starting slowly and then speeding up. Getting students to perform dialogues and extracts taken from a drama or a short story will also make them aware of speaking customs and help them to improve their fluency. (Harmer 2003: 198) When students are reading a text they can recognise certain words linking phrases in the text (e.g. cover it up – Rita).

8.3. What materials to use to improve students’ pronunciation?
	
Songs and rhymes, poems, tongue twisters are very useful materials which can be planned for the initial period of lesson as a warm-up activity or for the middle of the lesson as an ice-breaker, or for the end of the lesson as a cooler. In modern teaching packages CDs and multimedia CD-ROMs can be of benefit for learners as they usually contain authentic material and with the help of these students’ pronunciation can be developed easily.

Revision questions and tasks

1.	What areas of pronunciation can you distinguish? 
2.	Think of some typical difficulties Hungarian students have with English
               pronunciation. How can a teacher deal with these problems? 
3.	What is a realistic aim for a non-native teacher when teaching
               pronunciation?
4.	Describe a few activities aimed at practising individual sounds, stress, 
                rhythm or intonation.

9. CULTURE IN TEACHING ENGLISH

Communicative language teaching must be intercultural. Cross-cultural communication is not new: as long as people from different cultures have been encountering one another there has been cross-cultural communication. Nowadays, however, the growing globalisation of the world’s economic markets, increased travel opportunities and better communication facilities have created a situation in which people from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds need to communicate with each other more often than ever. Although communication across cultures has become very important in our age, only a few English teachers are aware of the fact that their task is not only to teach English, but they also have to increase their students’ cross-curricular awareness. The teachers of English as a foreign language have to teach language with a strong wish of education by changing their students’ attitude towards different cultures and different nations.

9.1. The definition of culture
	
It is not an easy task to define culture. If we look up an old Webster’s Dictionary, we will find the following definitions of culture:

1.	the cultivation of soil
2.	the training of mind
3.	the totality of socially transmitted behaviour patterns, arts, beliefs,
               institutions and all other products of human work and thought
4.	ways of behaviour of a given people
5.	culture with capital ‘C’ mean formal culture or achievement cultu
               re consisting of literature, fine arts, music, architecture, etc.
6.	culture with ‘small c’ means way of life culture or behaviour culture 
               containing patterns of daily living, attitudes and values.

Hammerly (2001) has designed a scheme in which there are three categories of culture including information or factual culture, which refers to informational facts that an average native speaker would know about his society, such as geographical or historical facts. The second category covers behavioural culture which refers to actual behaviour, such as conversational formulas, which Hammerly believes is the most essential for foreign language learning. Lastly achievement or accomplishment culture refers to artistic and literary accomplishments related to the particular target language group. 
If we look at the definitions cited above, we can see that culture, on the one hand is what people created or achieved: art, music, literature, history and on the other hand it means the way we develop for our percept, by which we mean our belief, value, attitude system, our world view and our social organizations. This second category had stronger influence on the former one since our value- and attitude system, the way we see the world around us shapes our creation. 

9.2. The domains of culture
	
While teaching our students culture we have to deal with the three domains of culture: the cognitive domain, the pragmatic domain and the attitudinal domain, which are essential and equally important. In the cognitive domain the aim is to give information about other cultures and the learners’ relation to them. We regard it as necessary not only to refer to the countries where the target language is spoken but to include also other cultures. In the pragmatic domain the aim is the acquisition of the practical skills needed for intercultural communication. In the attitudinal domain the aim is to develop attitudes such as open-mindedness, respect and tolerance and to avoid stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination.

9.3. What culture do we teach?
	
Whenever civilisation is included in school curricula in Europe and North America only ‘big C’ elements of British and American culture are emphasized. These courses contain a lot of pieces of information and facts about history, geography, institutions, literature, art and music. We have to recognise that the subject itself has broadened. ‘Big C’ (achievement culture) remains as it was, but little ‘c’ (behaviour culture) has been broadened to include culturally-influenced beliefs and perceptions, especially as expressed through language, but also through cultural behaviours that affect acceptability in the host community. 

The areas of culture

Behaviour culture
Costoms
Habits
Dress
Foods
Traffic 
Leisure

Achievement culture
Products
Literature
Art
Music
Architecture

Ideas
Beliefs
Values
Institutions

9.3.1. The importance of teaching achievement culture (‘big C’)

‘Though many experts criticise focusing on factual information, there indeed exists a basic repertoire of information necessary for the comprehension of most cultural concepts’ (Lafayette, 1997: 122). Language is a means of multicultural education, which is part of global education and as holistic approach is the characteristic feature of communicative language teaching, it is very important for language teachers to develop the students’ personalities, their global, factual knowledge about the target culture. 
9.3.1.1. The objectives of teaching achievement culture
	
The objectives of teaching ‘big C’ are classified to its basic fields, which are the following:
1.	recognise and explain major geographical monuments
2.	recognise and explain major historical events
3.	recognise and explain major institutions (political,
           administrative, religious, etc.)
4.	recognise and explain major ‘artistic monuments’ (architecture, 
           arts, literature, etc.)
The words recognise and explain are emphasized not accidentally. Recognise means to familiarise students with the given patterns, explain means to help students recognise the cultural connotations rooted in the background history and be able to locate cultural products of the target countries. We need to emphasize the fact that a constant comparison involving the students’ own culture and the target culture should be planned and maintained in teaching ‘big C’ as well as in integrating ‘small c’. 

9.3.2. The importance of teaching behaviour culture (‘small c’)
	
There are two main reasons for putting a bit more emphases on teaching behaviour culture than on teaching achievement culture. It is ‘small c’ that students meet in the target country every minute and that is why we have to provide them with a taste of the lifestyle of the target nation. The other reason for familiarising language learners with behaviour culture is to help them how to survive in a foreign country. Many useful readings can be found on history or literature but it is the language class where students can learn about the patterns of the pragmatic domain of culture. While getting familiar with the cultures of the target language students will be more aware of their own, Hungarian behaviour culture. Let us mention the topic ‘housing’. Students can compare the British ‘terraced houses’ to Hungarian ‘housing estates’ and American ‘apartment’ to British ‘flats’ and they will learn the fact that the ‘first floor’ in America is the same as the ‘ground floor’ in Great Britain. The students can speak about the so-called ‘pigeon holes’ in Japan and the ‘two-storey houses’ in Great Britain. In behaviour culture, students will learn what the British mean by lunch, double-Decker, cider, or public school.

9.3.3. The concepts belonging to the third area of culture
	
The concepts belonging to the third area of culture will have an impact on both large areas of culture, on ‘big C’ and ‘small c’. Religious beliefs will be reflected in pieces of music, in literature and in music. The same religious belief will give explanation to the eating habits of a nation, e.g. Muslims and Jews do not eat pork. 

9.4. Why to teach culture?
	
In communicative language teaching, which is content-based, inter-cultural and holistic, culture will provide the students with a lot of material which meets the requirements mentioned above. We have to teach culture so that students can have information above cultural facts and this way they can get familiar with the cognitive domain of culture. While learning about the culture of the target nation, students can understand the behaviour of the people living in the target country. This is the way how students learn the pragmatic domain of culture. The same aim can be achieved by teaching the students how to behave in the target country. In addition to the three aims of teaching culture we have to enable our students to give information about their own country. 

9.5. Goals of teaching culture

The following goals are a modification of Ned Seelye's, seven goals of cultural instruction. In Teaching Culture, Ned Seelye (1988) provides a framework for facilitating the development of cross-cultural communication skills.

According to Seelye the seven goals of teaching culture are:

1.	to help students to develop an understanding of the fact that all people exhibit culturally-conditioned behaviours,
2.	to help students to develop an understanding that social variables such as age, sex, social class, and place of residence influence the ways in which people speak and behave,
3.	to help students to become more aware of conventional behaviour in common situations in the target culture,
4.	to help students to increase their awareness of the cultural connotations of words and phrases in the target language
5.	to help students to develop the ability to evaluate and refine generalizations about the target culture, in terms of supporting evidence,
6.	to help students to develop the necessary skills to locate and organize information about the target culture,
7.	to stimulate students’ intellectual curiosity about the target culture, and to encourage empathy towards its people.

We recommend that you keep these seven goals of cultural instruction in mind as you do your lesson planning, and that you incorporate them into the following practical teaching principles:

1.	Access the culture through the language being taught.
2.	Make the study of cultural behaviours an integral part of each lesson.
3.	Aim for students to achieve the socioeconomic competence which they feel they need.
4.	Aim for all levels to achieve cross-cultural understanding awareness of their own culture, as well as that of the target language.
5.	Recognize that not all teaching about culture implies behaviour change, but merely an awareness and tolerance of the cultural influences affecting one’s own and others’ behaviour.

Revision questions and tasks

1.	Specify the significance of teaching culture in English classes. 
2.	What interpretations of culture do you distinguish? 
3.	What are the educational aspects of cultural awareness? 
4.	What, why and how would you teach topics which lend themselves to
           cultural exploitation? 

10. VISUAL, AUDIO, AUDIO-VISUAL AND DIGITAL AIDS

10.1. Basic principles of using tools in foreign language classes

One can consider tools, resources and didactic materials as “anything that can be used to facilitate the learning of a language” (Tomlinson, 2001). 

Tomlinson (2001) has outlined different criteria for classifying didactic materials in the following categories:

•	instructional in that they inform learners about the language;
•	experiential in that they provide exposure to the language in use;
•	elicitative in that they stimulate language use;
•	exploratory in that they seek discoveries about language use.

One can distinguish resources facilitating language learning according to criteria related to perception, too. Thus one has the categories of visuals and techniques of visualisation; audio resources and ways of audio-production; audio-visual means of education and approaches to video-production. The fourth category covers the contemporary tools based on information and communication technologies (ICT) that integrate perceptions and language production. (Poór, 2001)

When using any tool, one has to obey basic didactic principles. One of them is the so called ‘three stages principle’. It refers to the necessity of introducing a few activities before students would be exposed to the particular medium, further ones while they have close access to the input provided by the source and conclude the whole process with tasks to use all the language and information gained in he previous actions. Thus, one can distinguish pre-medium, active and follow-up stages. 

At the pre-medium stage students are helped to prepare for the content the medium to be used, will offer in terms of theme, linguistics and skills alike. This period bridges the experiences of previous learning processes and provides lead-in activities towards the next stage.
When looking at, listening to, watching and reading the particular resource there should be a great number of opportunities for learners to explore all aspects of the medium. That is, to exploit all thematic, linguistic and skills-related benefits of this period in a very active and productive way.
The follow-up stage serves for transfer and consolidation. Everything that can be learnt from the bridging or lead-in and active stages, will be applied for complex language production. This period can be used as an introductory one to a new medium at the same time. Thus the process of learning supported by various tools can be seen as a continuous one.

Another main criterion for tool-enhanced language learning procedures is the principle that one may want to refer to as ‘a piece of chalk is equal to the computer display’. It means that there is no dominant source in languages education. Each category of tools has got its significant role in the classroom. This is the teacher who knows when the time for each tool or resource is, and how to integrate them all in the process of education. That is, there are situations when a traditional means of education can do more than the most recently invented technical device. Inventions of new technology have to be used when there is no other tool that could offer a better outcome in the particular learning period. A balanced application of all possible tools can guarantee effectiveness in the long run.
10.2. Visuals and techniques of visualisation

One can identify techniques based on using visuals and aiming at student-initiated visualisation where the stimulus for utterances and the main source for (language) learning is provided by a visual impact. 

It can originate from the most natural source, i.e. the non-verbal aspect of human interaction. Thus the prime source of learning is the non-verbal behaviour of teachers, people native to the target language culture and fellow-students. 

Further means of education of visual characteristics can be the various sorts of boards (blackboard, white board, flannel board, flip chart) that can be used in a static and an interactive way at the same time. One can place various forms of texts, tables and images on them in advance and/or use it the way so that the final amount of information intended to share is the result of the co-operation of learners and the teacher at the same time. Large pieces of paper (posters) or any even and smooth surface placed even on the floor in the middle of the classroom can be used the same way.

Another traditional means of visual presentation are the print resources including course-books, activity or workbooks, dictionaries published for language educational purposes. This category can be complemented by books, magazines, newspapers, brochures and other print materials published for members of the particular target language communities or selected extracts from them.

Flashcards with words, phrases, sentences and particular target language culture specific data (like dates, names of important people, places, events, etc.) charts, tables of grammatical rules, posters with various pictures and maps can provide a visual impact for language learning and linguistic performance at the same time.

The projection of PowerPoint images – texts and pictures - (i.e. slides) is taking over the role of projected images that used to be provided by outdating technologies of the 1950s, 60s and 70s like slide-projectors.

The reason why the role and function of the OHPs have not been taken over by digital technologies is that OHP offers a more flexible opportunity for involving students in placing traces of their linguistic performance on the projecting surface spontaneously and you do not need extremely expensive and sophisticated equipment. A further advantage of the good old OHP is that there is no other technology that would let you exploit the educational potential of the so called shading technique when the silhouettes of various objects placed on the projecting surface can encourage students guess, predict, describe the vision, i.e. verbalise their thoughts.

Diorama with models of places (like habitats of animals), events (like a famous historic event) and various situations (like traffic accidents) can provide a resourceful stimulus for students - especially in the primary and vocationally oriented language teaching context – to investigate details, use the information gained and share their findings in a meaningful context when it is worth communicating.

The real pedagogical value of diorama is that they offer a visual stimulus in 3 dimensions and learners can be involved in producing them. The language teaching procedure itself can incorporate the production stage as well as the stage of exploitation of the complex impression and input they offer.

The same implies to displays set up in and outside language classrooms focussing on any language learning related topic or event.

Suspended mobiles are the type of visuals that may carry the same educational function as grammatical tables or charts transmitting selected information or data (like names, thematic collections of vocabulary items, etc.), but as they can be hung from the ceiling or any object high up in the classroom (like lamps) they offer a visual impact in 3 dimensions. Students can be involved in producing them.

Realia can be classified in further categories. One can distinguish objects that are typical for the target language culture like an English policeman’s helmet or packages, boxes, containers of goods; and objects of universal use, like shopping baskets, toy-telephones, etc.

Some of the realia may belong to both categories like puppets, card-games or board-games. The reason why they are special is that some of these can be (re)produced by the students themselves. A very popular with young teenagers activity, is the development of board-games that can be the end-product of a learning procedure for some students and the source of learning for others.

Thus one has already reached the stage when visualisation is not only a technique to enhance visual reception but it can be an approach to encourage students to visualise the concept they get by having an input transmitted to them either via the target language or related to the target language culture. Thus activities when students have to mime stories or react to an input in anon-verbal way, or when a story is illustrated by them in drawings are the productive aspects of visualisation. Thus visualisation is a kind of test of students’ achievement and it can provide a further input for others.

Activities to use visuals in a ‘receptive’ way

A.	Pre-medium stage: Exercises before looking at the visuals
•	Guessing the topic of the picture based on 
o	some key words or expressions
o	some text related to the picture
o	some noises or music
o	a limited visual impression
•	through a key-hole
•	due to shading
•	due to masking
•	Prediction of the rest of the visual based on
o	some key words or expressions
o	some text related to the picture
o	some noises or music
o	a limited visual impression
•	through a key-hole
•	due to shading
•	due to masking
•	Collecting words and expressions related to the topic the visual
                   illustrates

B.	Active stage: Exercises to be used while students can see the
                 visuals
•	Collecting words and expressions related to the picture
•	Elaborating on the (new) vocabulary with the help of a mono-
                  and/or bilingual dictionary
•	Paraphrasing (new) words and expressions in individual 
                   student work and/or in pair-work with peer(s)
•	Collecting pieces of information related to particular criteria
•	Matching
o	pictures with words
o	pictures with data and/or names of people /places/
                  events
o	pictures with parts of text
o	… etc.
•	Labelling the picture with
o	words and/or expressions
o	pieces of information / data / names
o	parts of text
o	… etc.
•	Multiple choice (test-like) exercises
•	Gap-filling
•	Completion of text
•	Sequencing
o	(key)words and expressions
o	data
o	names of people / places / events
o	parts of text
o	… etc.
•	Correcting information
•	Responding to yes-or-no questions
•	True-or-false / Wrong-or-right / Double choice (test-like)
                   exercises
•	Responding to Wh-questions
•	Filling in charts or tables
•	Putting parts of text together (puzzles)

C.	Follow-up stage: Exercises to be used when students do not 
                  necessarily see the visuals any more
•	Discussing issues raised by the picture
•	Creating and acting out a story
•	Role-plays, simulations, drama
•	Project-activities
o	Writing a diary
o	Writing a letter and/or a post-card
o	Writing an article / report for a newspaper / magazine /
                  webpage
o	Writing a script for a drama or film
o	Creating comics
o	Producing a film
o	Writing advertisements
o	Creating a board-game
o	Creating a riddle / cross-word puzzle
o	… etc.

Activities to produce visuals to support language learning

•	Picture dictation
•	Illustrating stories
•	Illustrating feelings and emotions on the basis of music or
                 sequences of sounds and noises
•	Creating maps, plans, schemes to demonstrate any information
                  read, heard, viewed on video or observed in the reality
•	Creating PowerPoint Presentations on various topics
•	… etc.

10.3. Audio resources and ways of audio-production

The natural human demonstration is the prime source for acquiring and developing listening skills. Even the word mother tongue indicated that parents and the closest community, i.e. the family plays an important role in providing language patterns that are initially acquired through hearing and listening. 

Hearing is a perception that one receives in the passive way, i.e. one is the receptor of sequences of sounds. Listening and listening comprehension though is of active nature. It is a series of activities hat is targeted at gaining information depending on identified needs and interest (Byrne, 1976; Poór, 2001; Underwood, 1989).

It is taken for granted that one comprehends most information transmitted in their first language (mother tongue) with ease. The message being communicated through can be understood due to the fact that the input is made comprehensible by the situation and context (Krashen, 1987). Strategies of listening comprehension are built on the notion of comprehensible input. When listening, one follows either the so called bottom-up approach or the top-down one (White 1998). One refers to bottom-up approach when one builds up his or her listening strategy on understanding the primary constructing elements of language – individual sounds, syllabi and words – first and than gradually arrives at comprehending all message as a whole. The top-down approach would indicate the opposite of the previously mentioned strategy. It means that one approaches the understanding of the message from a holistic point of view that is very much supported by the awareness of the theme of discourse and the context in which the message is communicated through.
When learning and teaching foreign languages, the role of life human presentation by teachers, peers (i.e. fellow-learners) and visitors who speak the target language as a native one has always been extremely important. Their contribution to language education can be complemented by supportive audio-technologies.

Radio, record-players, reel-to-reel tape- and cassette-recorders have been used as authentic resources for language learning since the development of Direct Method and Audio-Lingual Method. Their importance has not changed though they are being replaced by Internet- or web-radio and various kinds of digital recordings (e.g. CDs and MP3s). 

Audio resources can be distinguished depending on the target audience. One can use materials recorded or broadcast for language learning purposes and authentic media that have been targeted at native speakers or people living in the target language country.

The so called published materials broadcast structured and graded language bearing students of various levels of linguistic competence in mind. Even the content can be selected and graded regarding the objectives. They often convey target-language-culture-related information. Scriptwriters of published materials have all the language educational objectives and principles in their mind. Materials of this kind are often recorded in studios equipped with technologies of high standards so that disturbing noises would be avoided. Published audios are often accompanied by activity books.
The language of authentic recordings or radio broadcasts is not structured or graded. These media are scripted and edited based on the principles of journalism, drama, commercials, etc. rather than on that of the didactics. Majority of these resources can be fully comprehended mainly by people sharing the understanding of the contemporary reality of the target language culture.

There are further three categories to be mentioned that range between these two extreme ones.
Some publishers produce teaching materials that are developed from authentic (mainly) radio broadcasts accompanied by teachers’ books and workbooks to help teachers and learners downgrade the message conveyed by unstructured language. The supplementary (mainly) print materials open up the cultural perspectives of the authentic resources, too. These can be labelled as authentic audios republished for language teaching and learning purposes.

When visiting target language countries and / or meeting people represented the target language cultures, one can record interviews or other genres of audio-production to use with learners. When making resources of this kind one has particular classroom needs and students in mind. If one has not found any published or authentic material to cover the topic one needs to present, producing a recording on one’s own is the way out. Worksheets and any supplementary material can be produced on the teacher’s own initiative, too. People whose voice is recorded do not necessary structure and grade their language. They talk the way they normally do. These audios can be specified as authentic resources recorded for language teaching purposes. 

National radios and publishers of educational materials often produce recordings for schools in their own countries. Audio-recordings to contribute to teaching any subject area in schools in the target language country are scripted and recorded bearing the subject-specific didactic principles in mind, but they do not pay much attention to structuring and grading the language. Materials of this kind can be used in language classes, too. Though, one has to adjust the accompanying worksheets to the standards and needs of students. These educational authentic resources can promote cross-curricular language education with much success.

Whatever type of audio-recording one uses, there is a great number of techniques to apply in order to make an active use of them.

The process of applying audio-materials for receptive purposes

A.	Pre-medium stage: Exercises before listening to the audio-
                 source
•	Guessing the topic of the audio-source based on 
o	some key words or expressions
o	some text related to the topic
o	some noises or music
•	Prediction of the rest of the audio-source based on
o	some key words or expressions
o	some text related to the audio-source
o	some noises or music
•	Collecting words and expressions related to the topic the audio-
                  source covers

B.	Active stage: Exercises to be used while listening
•	Collecting words and expressions related to the audio-source
•	Elaborating on the (new) vocabulary with the help of a mono-
                 and/or bilingual dictionary
•	Paraphrasing (new) words and expressions in individual student
                 work and/or in pair-work with peer(s)
•	Collecting pieces of information related to particular criteria
•	Matching
o	pictures illustrating the topic of he audio-recording
                    with words
o	pictures illustrating the topic of he audio-recording
                    with data and/or names of people / places / events
o	pictures illustrating the topic of he audio-recording
                    with parts of text
o	…
•	Labelling a visual (picture, map, plan, scheme, etc.) with
o	words and/or expressions
o	pieces of information / data / names
o	parts of text
o	…
•	Multiple choice (test-like) exercises
•	Gap-filling
•	Completion of text
•	Sequencing
o	(key)words and expressions
o	data
o	names of people / places / events
o	parts of text
o	… etc.
•	Correcting information
•	Responding to yes-or-no questions
•	True-or-false / Wrong-or-right / Double choice (test-like)
                 exercises
•	Responding to Wh-questions
•	Filling in charts or tables
•	Putting parts of text together (puzzles)

C.	Follow-up stage: Exercises to be used after listening
•	Discussing issues raised by the audio-source
•	Acting out a story as suggested in the listening material
•	Creating and acting out a continuation to the story
•	Role-plays, simulations, drama
•	Project-activities
o	Writing a diary
o	Writing a letter and/or a post-card
o	Writing an article / report for a newspaper / magazine
                    / webpage
o	Writing a script for a drama or film
o	Creating comics
o	Producing a radio-play or any genre of radio-
                    programmes (audio-project)
o	Producing a film or any genre of tv-programmes
                    (video-project)
o	Writing advertisements
o	Creating a board-game
o	Creating a riddle / cross-word puzzle
o	… etc.

Music has played an important role in language education, too. Using musical recordings to bring students to a relaxed state has been typical for Suggestopedia and Relaxopedia.
Further application can be communication inspired by the music played in the background. The theme of the drama can be outlined by the visions students get when listening to the music in a relaxed state (Pohl, 1999). Thus music promotes creating stories that can be acted out, visualised by pictures drawn by students and then written up (Katchen, 1995; Taylor, 1992).
Language labs and tapes to make them work have been typical for the Audio-Lingual Method. Though they are not really widely used in the everyday reality of language education any more, it is worth summing up what techniques can be applied. Tapes produced for language lab application follow the principles of programmed learning. 

The lab-oriented tapes offer the chance for drills of the following types:

•	Two-rhythm exercise
1.	model and stimulus
2.	student’s response
•	Three-rhythm exercise
1.	model and stimulus
2.	student’s response
3.	sample response
•	Four-rhythm exercise
1.	model and stimulus
2.	student’s response
3.	sample response
4.	repeated response by student
•	Two-in-four-rhythm exercise
1.	model and stimulus 1
2.	student’s response 1
3.	sample response 1 and stimulus 2
4.	repeated response 1 by student and student’s response
                    to stimulus 2;

(Dániel and Nádasi, 1976; Poór, 2001; Wallner, 1976)

Students’ responses can be recorded in any of these exercises provided one wants to create a basis for comparison for the sake of learners’ self-evaluation. Thus language lab application has shown a way towards recording students’ oral performances for feedback purposes. It has led us to audio-production as a way of audio-related activities in language education. 

Another purpose of recording students’ performances is to create audio-projects. The activity that leads to the production of audio-projects is project work.

Project work is a series of carefully planned and negotiated, multi-skill activities that are carried out in a co-operative, creative atmosphere with the aim to produce something tangible that has got a real function in real life. 

A project is the end-product of the previously described series of activities. Being tangible and looking similar to things that have got real functions in real life are very significant criteria of projects. In the context of audio-project work this end-product can resemble the characteristics of various genres of radio programmes such as news, weather forecasts, sports broadcasts, quizzes, advertisements or commercials, traffic information, portraits of people, radio plays and soap operas. Another option is to record 'audio-letters' to friends abroad. This latter product is rather frequently used in the so called ‘shoe-box’ projects, i.e. class-to-class or school-to-school exchange projects.

What are the aims of project work?

•	Helping students attain communicative competence;
•	Encouraging spontaneous expression orally and in writing;
•	Reinforcing the students' linguistic abilities;
•	Developing their own learning capacity;
•	Increasing the students' ability to read basic literary, technical
                          or daily-use texts;
•	Helping the students using English by exchanging ideas,
                         feelings and information with speakers of other languages;
•	Contributing to the integral and social development of the 
                          students by means of an active methodology, based mainly on 
                          group work;
•	Contributing to learners' intellectual development;
(Fernández Carmona,1991)
The values of project work can be justified by the facts that it

•	is student-centred, not syllabus-centred;
•	focuses on topics or themes rather than on specific language;
•	is skill-based, not structure-based;
•	doubts the monopoly of verbal skills in the success of learning;
•	reforms the traditional student-teacher relationship;
•	based on hierarchy;
•	effects on student-student relationship because it creates a
                 cooperative atmosphere rather than a competitive one;
•	concerns on motivation as it is personal;
•	encourages learning through doing and develops the sense of
                 achievement as the end-product is important;
•	encourages independent investigation;
•	integrates language skills with other skills in a cross-curricular
                 context.
(Poór, 2001)

The process of creating audio-projects

A.	Preparatory (pre-project work) stage
1.	Input (in linguistic and cross-curricular terms)
2.	The teacher’s decision on when project work is
                    appropriate
3.	‘bridging’ and ‘leading-in’ activities

B.	Active (while working on the project) stage
4.	Initiating project work, introducing the idea
5.	Discussing the actual topics and possible formats of 
                    the end-product
6.	Defining objectives with students
7.	Forming groups
8.	Planning in groups
9.	Counselling with the teacher
10.	Collecting data, information, materials and resources 
                    to use
11.	Group discussion
–	Counselling with the teacher
–	Confirming and modifying the plan
12.	Producing the project

C.	Follow-up (post-project work) stage
13.	Group discussion an counselling with the teacher
14.	Presentation: using the project for something in a real 
                    context
15.	Reflection

The evaluation of project work is the trial of the product that is the project itself. When one listens to the audio-recording created through a series of learning activities, one expects it to function the way any radio-programme would do in real life. A weather forecast produced by students can act as a starting point for a role play aiming at negotiating and planning a weekend for example.

10.4. Audio-visual means of education and approaches to video-production

In the history of the development of language teaching methods, Direct and Audio-Lingual Methods were followed by Audio-Visual Method as an outcome of research inquiring how effective teaching and learning can be depending on the resources used. If the input is given by audio-visual means, i.e. seeing and hearing is involved, 50% of the information gained will be stored in the long term memory. The efficiency can be increased up to 70 % if the audio-visual imputes accompanied by students’ oral production. Originally sound-slides, ‘book-cassettes’, sound-films and educational television were used. The best practice of applying traditional audio-visual means has been implemented by contemporary teachers who use videotapes, DVDs and any other audio-visual digital sources (like Flash-presentations) to facilitate language learning.

The classification of videos to be integrated in the language education procedures is the same as those of audios, i.e. authentic videos, authentic videos republished for language teaching purposes, private authentic videos recorded for language teaching purposes, educational authentic videos and videos published for language teaching. 

The process of applying video-materials for receptive purposes

Possible technical solutions of screening

•	freeze-frame
•	sound off (picture only)
•	image off (sound only)
•	key-hole, masking and shading techniques
•	slow motions
•	speeded-up motions

A. Pre-medium stage: Exercises before watching the video-source
•	Guessing the topic of the video-source based on 
o	some key words or expressions
o	some text related to the topic
o	some noises or music
o	a limited visual impression
•	through a key-hole
•	due to shading
•	due to masking
•	Prediction of the rest of the video-source based on
o	some key words or expressions
o	some text related to the video-source
o	some noises or music
o	a limited visual impression
•	through a key-hole
•	due to shading
•	due to masking
•	Collecting words and expressions related to the topic the video-
                 source covers
B.	Active stage: Exercises to be used while watching the video-
                 source
•	Collecting words and expressions related to the video-source
•	Elaborating on the (new) vocabulary with the help of a mono- 
                 and/or bilingual dictionary
•	Paraphrasing (new) words and expressions in individual student 
                 work and/or in pair-work with peer(s)
•	Collecting pieces of information related to particular criteria
•	Matching
o	pictures illustrating the topic of the video-recording 
                    with words
o	pictures illustrating the topic of the video-recording
                    with data and/or names of people / places / events
o	pictures illustrating the topic of he audio-recording
                    with parts of text
o	…
•	Labelling a visual (picture, map, plan, scheme, etc.) with
o	words and/or expressions
o	pieces of information / data / names
o	parts of text
o	… etc.
•	Multiple choice (test-like) exercises
•	Gap-filling
•	Completion of text
•	Sequencing
o	(key)words and expressions
o	data
o	names of people / places / events
o	parts of text
o	… etc.
•	Correcting information
•	Responding to yes-or-no questions
•	True-or-false / Wrong-or-right / Double choice (test-like)
                  exercises
•	Responding to Wh-questions
•	Filling in charts or tables
•	Putting parts of text together (puzzles)

C.	Follow up stage: Exercises for the period after watching the 
                 video-source
•	Discussing issues raised by the video-source
•	Acting out a story as suggested in the listening material
•	Creating and acting out a continuation to the story
•	Role-plays, simulations, drama
•	Project-activities
o	Writing a diary
o	Writing a letter and/or a post-card
o	Writing an article / report for a newspaper / magazine 
                    / webpage
o	Writing a script for a drama or film
o	Creating comics
o	Producing a radio-play or any genre of radio-
                    programmes (audio-project)
o	Producing a film or any genre of tv-programmes
                    (video-project)
o	Writing advertisements
o	Creating a board-game
o	Creating a riddle / cross-word puzzle
o	… 

The advantage of video-technology is that one can record students’ performance, too. As mentioned before regarding audio-production, recordings can be used for feedback – self-evaluation – purposes and in project work, too.

As far as video-project work is concerned, it can aim at the production of television programmes such as news, weather forecasts, sports ‘transmissions’, quizzes, advertisements and commercials, traffic information, portraits of people, ‘feature films’, soap operas, TV-sketches, situational comedies, documentary films (introducing places, traditions, past events, nature, etc.), fashion shows, puppet shows, bedtime stories, video-clips, promotion videos (introducing the work and life of an institution or a company. Further genres could be video guides of a town or of an institution like a school; video documentation of family, school and community events; ‘video letters’ to friends abroad.

It is usually role plays and isolated pronunciation exercises that can be recorded with the aim of peer-, teacher and self-evaluation. Various procedures have been elaborated to support this idea. (Lonergan, 1984, Poór, 1997)

The process of applying the video-feedback technique with role-plays

A. Preparatory stage: before the role play
1.	Setting the objectives and deciding on timing, time-
                    frame, topic, forms
2.	Planning
3.	Implementing lead-in (bridging) activities 

B. Active stage: while students act out the role play
4.	Setting tasks
5.	Learners prepare for the role play
6.	Acting out the role play and recording it with a
                    camera

C. Follow-up stage: after the role play
7.	Feedback: analysis and evaluation of learners’ performance by the learners involved, their peers and the teacher by replaying the video-recording
8.	Reflection on the whole process by the learners and their teacher

Criteria for the feedback and evaluation of videoed role plays

Self-reflection sheet (A)

Criteria
	
Performance

Above usual	
As usual	
Below usual	
My self-confidence				
My identification with the role I
     played				
How could I make myself 
     understood?				
The implementation of non-verbal
     elements of communication				
My pronunciation				
My intonation				
The appropriateness of the language I
     produced				
The accuracy of the language I 
     produced (language structures / 
     grammar)				
The choice of vocabulary				
How did I feel myself in action?				

Self-reflection sheet (B)

I was surprised to experience that …
	
What I found the most disturbing was …
	
The role play work out the following way:

I / We faced the following difficulties during the role play:

… and I / we solved them the following way:

I would be pleased to act out the same role once again, because …

I don’t think I want to act out the same role once again, because …

While the role play and preparing for it I practised:
	
Next time I would do the following things in a different way (What? And
     How?):
	
I need practising …

Reflection sheet for peer-observation

Choose a peer of yours to observe while acting out the role play
and reflecting on her/his performance	
Her/his self-confidence
	
Her/his identification with the role s/he played 
	
How could s/he make her/himself understood?
	
The implementation of non-verbal elements of communication 
	
The atmosphere of the role play
	
What you liked was …
	
Did s/he and her/his fellows in the play face any difficulty?

How could s/he / they solve it?
	
How real is the picture s/he sees her/himself during the feedback discussion?
	
Any points s/he raised that you would not have thought of:
	
Anything you learnt for your own benefit from both the role play and the
    feedback discussion

10.5. Information and communication technologies

Contemporary digital, i.e. computer-operated information and communication technologies offer an unlimited chance for self-directed learning. Thus the principles of learner autonomy have to be followed when creating a fruitful learning environment based on ICT.
One can use software targeted at language teaching and learning; resources such as databases, dictionaries and encyclopaedia; tools for productive use like word processing and data processing programmes. (Legenhausen, 1996)

The most frequently occurring forms of ICT-based language learning activities use multimedia, electronic dictionaries and web-pages. Various international projects inspire students communicate to each other by sending e-mail messages. As soon as students are able to express their thoughts on a one-to-one basis by e-mail, there is a realistic chance for encouraging them to enter on-line discussion forums, such as chat-rooms.

Topical chat-rooms that is MOOs offer a lot of perspectives for language educators where a theme can be initiated for discussion among language learners. As soon as a story can be outlined and a problem can be spotted, a simulation can be initiated, that is students carry on with the story in order to negotiate the solution. This chat-room-specific application leads us to the world of virtual reality. This form of application is called VRML and it offers the visualisation of fictive participants and venues.

Various multimedia programmes offer chance for self-correction and self-evaluation. They can be sources for diagnostic or attainment tests. With the help of built-in microphones and web cameras on the computer, some multimedia integrate the practising of pronunciation and elementary units for interaction in a comparative way that resembles language lab applications to some extent.

Internet-based digital technology offers the chance for on-line audio-communication and video-interaction with the help of Skype, ICQ, MSN and other kinds of applications. The majority of the previously named software mainly offers the chance for communication between two parties. 

Should teachers want to involve more learner-communities in real-time communication, video-conferencing can be the mode of creating real situations for language learning. The exploitation of the benefits of Internet-based on-line communication adds new values to education, as the limits of the classrooms are extended and other student-communities can be invited. Thus the term of ‘virtual classroom’ has also appeared in the profession. ‘Virtual classrooms’ do not only provide new information gained from set sources and peers in other classes, schools, towns, countries and even continents, but create a firm basis for creative types of learning such as project work.

As project work has developed, new technologies give us the opportunity to involve our students in designing and producing multimedia and/or web pages. Activities of this kind offer language learning opportunity while creating the programmes that often act as source of learning for other people. This latter can be the case in numerous European projects for school-to-school co-operation.

Revision questions and tasks

1.	What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of using visual, 
               auditory and audio-visual aids? What can they be used for? 
2.	Mention some techniques of using the video. 
3.	What are the ways of exploiting computers?
4.	How and to what extent can/should the Internet be used in English
               classes?
5.	What should a teacher pay attention to while using the blackboard?
6.	Describe a set of visual aids that you have used and think of at least two 
               possible purposes/ways of using them.

11. PLANNING

Overall decisions about foreign language teaching and course content are usually not taken by teachers, but by some higher authority. It will be necessary for each institution to know that the same kind of teaching is taking place in all of its classes at the same level, but previous decisions about the exact syllabus and the textbook to be used can often be made at school level as well. 
In order to achieve the Common European Framework of foreign language teaching all the members of the EU have to take the recommendations published in the White Paper of the Council of Europe into consideration. Based on the guidelines published by the Council of Europe national curricula are compiled by the member states. The National Curriculum of Hungary is on the top of the hierarchy in the planning procedure which belongs to long-term planning and will be described in this chapter. The National Curriculum should be adapted to each school profile. That is the reason why each school is obliged to make its local curriculum. In the middle of the hierarchy different syllabuses can be found in which course-book writers turn their attention to the central organising strand of their materials, namely the syllabus. At the bottom of the hierarchy short-term planning goes on, namely planning the lessons for each class; lesson plans. 

11.1. General principles of course design
	
While planning a training programme the designer of the course has to take the following steps into consideration: 

1.	needs analysis – the needs of the target group have to be considered carefully so that the designer can decide on the course content
2.	setting aims and objectives – by aims we mean the overall general goals of the training programme e.g. achieving B2 level in oral communication; by objectives we mean the more concrete targets of a course which specify the language, content and methodology of the course to be planned;
3.	orientation – at this stage of planning brainstorming with colleagues and selecting course materials go on; this procedure can be supplemented with negotiating with learners as well;
4.	planning the course – at this stage the content of the course with the teaching methods to be used are defined and organised; the time to be devoted to certain parts of the course must also be designed;
5.	implementing the course – this stage of planning means planning teaching units (lessons and periods), teachers are supposed to set aims and sub-aims of the lesson, select suitable teaching techniques and specify learners’ and teachers’ roles;
6.	assessment and evaluation – here course designers plan the various ways of course evaluation and the different types of assessment, the ways of testing, etc.
7.	quality control – means the different types of accreditation during which the course will be evaluated and compared with standards and sometimes modified in order to improve the required quality.

In the following chart taken from Matheidesz, M. (2002) we can see what criteria of planning are to be considered. If we miss any steps of designing, we can lose the interests of the target group or the support of our colleagues. Quality control is especially important today when we want to standardise and harmonise our teaching programmes not only with Hungarian but with European colleagues as well.

Course design

assesment and evaluation

quality control

needs analysis

orientation

setting aims and objectives

planning the course

implementing the course

11.2. General principles of syllabus design
	
Syllabus design concerns the selection of items to be learnt and the grading of those items into an appropriate sequence. It is different from curriculum design (Nunan, 1988: Ch.1.). In the latter the designer is concerned not just with lists of what will be taught and in what order, but also with the planning, implementation, evaluation, management and evaluation of education programmes. There are a number of different types of language syllabus, all of which can be taken as a starting point in the planning of a new course book. Every syllabus needs to be developed on the basis of certain criteria, such as learnability, frequency, coverage and usefulness. Learnability means that we teach easier things first and then increase the level of difficulty as students’ language level rises. Frequency would make sense at the beginning levels, to include items which are more frequent in the language, than ones that are only used occasionally by native speakers. By coverage we mean the scope for use. Some words and structures have greater coverage than others. Teachers may decide on the basis of coverage whether to introduce a language structure before another one or not. Usefulness gives the reason why certain words, such as ‘book’ or ‘pen’ are highly recommended in classrooms though they might not be that frequent in real language use. They are useful words in a classroom situation. 
11.2.1. Planning a syllabus

A model plan of syllabus design should contain the following: 

1.	the general aims and specific objectives of the course (in terms 
                  of student learning) 
2.	the organisation of the course
a.	the number of hours per week, the total number of 
                    lessons
b.	interrelationship with other course components
3.	the outline of content – the topic headings covered weekly
4.	methodology used (general indication of balance of 
                 lecture/class activity, amount of student participation)
5.	teaching materials
a.	main course books followed
b.	supplementary readings
c.	worksheets, audio-visual materials
6.	student assessment 
a.	requirements students are to meet
b.	assignments and test papers during the course
c.	end-of-the-course test or exam
7.	course evaluation: methods used to evaluate the success of the 
                  course against the aims and objectives, e.g. by obtaining student 
                 feed-back etc.

11.2.2. Types of syllabuses 

-	The grammar syllabus – It is the commonest type of syllabus. A list of items is sequenced in such a way that the students gradually acquire knowledge of grammatical structures leading to an understanding of the grammatical system. The grammatical structures, such as the Present Continuous tens, the Present Simple tense, comparison of adjectives, relative clauses are usually divided into sections graded according to difficulty and importance. The advantages of grammar syllabuses are the following: they provide students with a very good system of language structures and a good basis for developing cognitive skills. Their disadvantages are the lack of harmony between linguistic forms and meanings and speech intentions. (Harmer 2003: 296, Kurtán 2001: 40)

-	The lexical syllabus – It is possible to organise a syllabus on the basis of lexical items with associated collocations and idioms usually divided into graded sections. Lexical items can be selected according to:

1.	vocabulary related to topics (e.g. clothes, housing, crime)
2.	issues of word formation (e.g. suffixes and other morphological changes)
3.	word-grammar triggers (e.g. verbs which are followed by certain
               syntactic patterns)
4.	compound lexical items (e.g. multi-storey car park, walking stick)
5.	connecting and linking words (e.g. if, when, until, etc.)
6.	semi-fixed expressions (e.g. would you like to, if I were you, I’d...)
7.	connotations and metaphors (e.g. kick the bucket). (Harmer 2003: 297,
               Kurtán 2001: 43)

- The situational syllabus – A situational syllabus offers the possibility of selecting and sequencing different real-life situations rather than different grammatical items, vocabulary topics or functions. Sections would be headed by names of situations or locations, such as: in the street, at the supermarket, at the restaurant, etc. Various types of situational syllabuses can be distinguished; we can speak about real-life and imaginary situations. In various situations students can practise grammatical structures, pronunciation, and vocabulary in different speech functions. Situations in the syllabuses make it possible for the students to practise language items in broad contexts not only at the level of sentences. (Harmer 2003: 298, Kurtán 2001: 40)
- The topic-based syllabus – Another framework around which to organise language is that of different topics, such as the weather, health, generation gaps, clothes, etc. Topics provide an organising principle in which students will be interested in the headings indicate a fairly clear set of vocabulary items which may be specified. Topics are most relevant to students’ communicative needs though they may differ from what they want. Compiling a topic-based syllabus the designer has to take the age, fields of interest and motivation of the target group into consideration. While dealing with certain topics students can be formed in their critical, and free-from- stereotypes ways of thinking. (Harmer 2003: 298, Kurtán 2001: 44)

-	The functional-notional syllabus – Language functions are things you can do with language, such as inviting, promising and offering. A functional-notional syllabus might look like the following:

1.	Requesting
2.	Offering
3.	Inviting
4.	Agreeing and disagreeing
5.	etc.
(Harmer 2003: 297, Kurtán 2001: 41)

In European syllabuses they are divided into macro-functions (e.g. finding the way, explanation, description, etc.) and micro-functions (e.g. greetings, introduction, apologising, etc.). Purely functional syllabuses are rare. Usually both functions and notions are combined. (van Ek, 1990) 
- The notional syllabus (Wilkins, 1976) – Notions are concepts that language can express. General notions may include ‘number’, ‘time’, ‘place’, ‘colour’. Specific notions look more like vocabulary items: ‘man’, ‘woman’, ‘afternoon’. In Hungary certain notions are prescribed in the National Curriculum, e.g. space and time relations in which various prepositions, adverbs referring to spatial and time relations are to be taught. 
- The task-based syllabus – A task-based syllabus lists a series of tasks and may list some or all of the language to be used in those tasks. Prabhu (1987: 26) calls it a procedural syllabus. In the focus of task-based syllabuses the following instructions are given:
-	Following the instructions, draw a map.
-	Fill in a form in which you can apply for a visa.
The theoretical background of a syllabus like this is to make language learning experiential, practicable. Syllabus designers want to prepare the students for real-life needs; they want to provide them with more and more tasks which can be useful every day. 
- The activity-based syllabus – An activity-based syllabus develops students’ language competences according to certain language skills. Usually these skills are developed in an integrated way but sometimes certain skills, e.g. writing or reading get into the focus of a syllabus, e.g. writing formal letters can be the focus of a special course organised for secretaries. (Harmer 2003: 299, Kurtán 2001: 42) 
- The mixed or multi-strand syllabus – A common solution to the competing claims of the different syllabus types we have looked at is the mixed or multi-strand syllabus. Modern syllabuses are combining different aspects in order to be maximally comprehensive and helpful to teachers and learners; in these you may find specification of topics, tasks, functions and notions, as well as grammar and vocabulary. (Harmer 2003: 299, Kurtán 2001: 44)
11.3. Short-term planning – Lesson plans
	
Lesson planning is the art of combining a number of different elements into a coherent whole so that a lesson has an identity which students can recognise, work within and react to. Plans are proposals for action rather than scripts to be followed slavishly. 
11.3.1. Pre-planning
	
Before teachers start to make a lesson plan they need to consider a number of crucial factors, such as the language level of the target group, their educational and cultural background, their levels of motivation, and their different learning styles. Teachers also need knowledge of the content and organisation of the syllabus or curriculum they are working with, and the requirements of the exams the students are working towards. Armed with the knowledge of the students and of the syllabus the teachers can go on to consider the four main planning elements: content, language, skills and activities. As communicative language teaching is content-based teachers always have to be aware of the fact that English is only a tool for the students through which they can learn a lot about the world. That is the reason why the content of the lesson: the topic (e.g. animals, healthy way of living, elections, etc.) about which the students will learn something in English must enjoy priority. Lesson planners have to select content which has a good chance of provoking interest and involvement. Content is to some extent dependent on a course book the teachers can still judge when and how to use the course book’s topics or whether to replace them with something else. The teachers can predict knowing their students, which topics will work and which will not. 
Teachers have to decide what language to introduce and have the students learn, practice, research or use. One of the dangers of planning is that where language is the main focus it is the first and only planning decision that teachers make. Once the decision has been taken to teach the Present Continuous, for example, it is tempting to slip back into a drill-dominated teaching session which lacks variety. Language is only one area that we need to consider when planning lessons.
While planning the lesson, teachers need to make a decision about which language skills and what thinking skills we wish our students to develop. Teachers must be aware of the fact that communicative language teaching is holistic so while teaching English they are supposed to develop students’ learning skills while using metacognitive, cognitive, and social mediation strategies. In the pre-planning phase teachers have to think over the various ways in which students’ learning strategies, logical ways of thinking and their cooperative techniques can be developed in the lesson.
When planning, it is vital to consider what students will be doing in the classroom, teachers have to consider the different work forms, the types of activities whether they are stirring or settling. The best lessons offer a variety of activities within a class period. Students may find themselves standing up and working with each other for five minutes before returning to their seats and working fro a time on their own. It is not only work forms that must be altered, but the different types of skills, such as oral and written, receptive and productive skills. Teachers always have to be aware of the fact that students have no other chances of developing their speaking skills but in the classroom. That is the reason why oral skills should dominate foreign language lessons. Organising the various activities in the lesson teachers must take the classical phases of a lesson into consideration. 

11.3.2. The plan

The lesson plan should contain the name of the teacher and that of the mentor teacher (in case of teaching practice), the date and duration of the lesson, some information about the school and the profile of the target group. By group profile we mean the number of students, their language proficiency and ability, their learning experience in English. The most important part of planning is defining the various types of aims in the lesson. Content aim defines the topic of the lesson to be taught about in English, language aims contain all the language competences (vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, spelling) and language skills (listening, reading, speaking and writing) to be developed in the lesson. The last but equally important type of aims will contain thinking skills of the students to be developed, namely metacognitive (e.g. centring learning), cognitive (e.g. predicting, eliciting, matching) and social mediation strategies (e.g. cooperating, peer correcting, etc.). The course material (course book, handouts, supplementary books and other material) must also be defined before describing the various activities of the lesson.
A lesson is to start with a warm-up activity the function of which is to lead in a topic and to create a special English atmosphere. It should be short, interesting, motivating during which the students meet the basic topic of the lesson. The warm-up can be a kind of revision as well. All work forms can be planned for warmers. The next stage of the lesson is the so-called presentation stage in which new structures or words are presented. At this stage teachers must take all learner types and different learning styles into consideration. As a consequence of the variety of types and styles teachers are supposed to present the new material in as many ways as they can. The presentation stage which is usually organised frontally is followed by the practice or consolidation stage which can be subdivided into three phases: the controlled, semi-controlled and free practice stages. Controlled practice is sometimes called accurate reproduction stage. This is the time when new structures or words are drilled under the strict control of the teacher. During this period each mistake or error must be corrected lest students should get incorrect pattern. At the semi-controlled stage some elements of free choice appear. Students can choose from different options sometimes halves of sentences are given and they are supposed to finish them, etc. At free practice or production stage (sometimes called as communicative output) students are given plenty of chances of using the language items in free speech or writing. Usually role play activities or essay writing can be set at this stage. Students’ mistakes and errors are corrected only in the forms of delayed or gentle correction here. All the activities belonging to the practice stage are to be organised either in group work or pair work. Students’ talking time can be increased if teachers do not plan frontal activities for practising. Each lesson must be closed with a feedback part, feedback has got double function: at this stage teachers assess their students’ production in the forms of content feedback and form feedback. 
In a lesson teachers have to keep various types of balance. These types are the following:

-	the balance of work forms (frontal, group, pair)
-	the balance of skills (receptive/productive – oral/written)
-	the balance of activities (warm-up, 3 Ps, feedback)
-	the balance of stirring and settling activities (after a competition
           a writing activity must be planned)

11.3.3. A sample lesson plan

Teacher:		Ágnes Olgyay
Supervising teacher:	Mária Blaskovics
Date:			08.02.2006., 9 o’clock
Duration:		45 minutes
School:		György Békésy Secondary School
Class:		10/A

Group profile

There are 16 students in the group. They started learning English at primary school. They enjoy English lessons and some of them speak at pre-intermediate level. They have six lessons a week, and they use English even in the breaks (just for fun).

Place

The classroom has a special English atmosphere. The walls are decorated with the maps of the USA and the pieces of work compiled by the students. The furniture is suitable for groupwork as well as for pair-work.

Main aims

Content aims: The USA and Hungary. To extend the students’ cognitive domain, their global knowledge about American and Hungarian cultures – increasing students’ awareness of the target culture as well as about their own culture by introducing facts and behaviour models characteristic of the two cultures.
Language aims: expanding the students’ vocabulary and their language awareness. The Past Simple versus the Present Simple Tenses
Vocabulary: Spots of interest, historical monuments of Hungary, Bp.
Thinking skills: metacognitive strategies; centring learning
Cognitive skills (e.g. matching, identifying, drawing conclusions)
Social skills: to train students how to cooperate, how to work in teams, share responsibility
Materials
-	Handouts / photocopies (charts about Hungary, task sheets)
-	CD player and the CD of „Hello Tourist”
-	 Posters and pictures of Hungary ( + Blue-stick)
-	-New Headway Pre-intermediate Student’s Book and
                  Workbook

tábla

Revision questions and tasks

1.	What do you mean by long term and short term planning?
2.	What is the difference between the National Curriculum and a local 
                curriculum?
3.	What types of syllabuses can you distinguish? What types meet the
                requirements of Communicative Approach?
4.	What aspects of the lesson should be balanced?
5.	What aims of lessons are you supposed to define when planning a lesson?

12. FEEDBACK AND ERROR CORRECTION

During a course students’ performance is regularly assessed by grades on papers, quizzes, and exams until they receive the final grade. This information does not always come in time for the students to improve their learning while they are attending a course. That is why students need to be given feedback during the course, as well. 

12.1. Feedback 

Feedback refers to the information that learners receive from their teacher about their performance, which will help them take self-corrective action and improve their achievement. Learners receive feedback from several sources: themselves, the learning task, fellow students and the teacher. The purpose of giving feedback in the classroom is to improve learner performance, it provides constructive advice, and guidance to learners in their effort to raise their performance levels. Feedback is generally given for informational and/or motivational purposes. Informational feedback corrects errors that the learner commits, but it should not be de-motivating. Feedback can also be used as a device to reinforce learning. Effective feedback focuses on the learner’s performance and stresses both strengths and suggestions for improvement.

12.2. Kinds of feedback

Harmer (1991) makes a distinction between two different kinds of feedback: content and form feedback. Content feedback involves the assessment of how good the students’ performance was in the communicative activity, focussing on their ability to perform the task rather than deal with the correctness of their language used in the activity. Form feedback deals with the linguistic accuracy of the students’ performance. The teacher will record the errors the students are making during the activity and will give a feedback on their successful achievement as well as discuss their errors and mistakes.

12.3. Error correction

Correction is a form of feedback given to learners on their use of the language. All teachers would agree that correcting the errors that the students make when they speak or write is one of the most difficult tasks in language teaching. There are so many issues the teacher has to consider: whether it is an error or a mistake, at what stages the teacher should correct, how much correction should be made, how the student can be corrected without being de-motivated.
12.4 Errors versus mistakes

These two terms had been used interchangeably before Corder (1974) pointed out that it was important to distinguish between ‘errors’ and ‘mistakes’. 
12.4.1. Mistakes 

Mistakes are inaccuracies in linguistic production either in our native language (L1) or in the foreign language (L2) that are caused by memory lapses, physical states and   conditions such as fatigue, inattention, or strong emotion. Mistakes are mainly slips of the tongue or lapses, even native people make mistakes in speech and writing. Mistakes are not systematic, they occur accidentally, the learner is immediately aware of them and can correct them. 
12.4.2. Slips and attempts

Edge (1989) distinguishes between slips and attempts from the point of view of learners and teachers, defining slips as mistakes that the teacher thinks the student could self-correct. When the students want to express their meaning but they make a mistake because they have not yet learned the necessary language structure, their mistakes can be called attempts.

12.4.3. Performance versus competence

Mistakes are miscues in performance. The term ‘performance’ was introduced by Chomsky (1965) and he meant the overt production of language as either speech or writing. He contrasted it with ‘competence’, the native speaker’s perfect knowledge. Competence is the knowledge of what is grammatically correct; performance is what occurs in practice. Chomsky regarded performance as the faulty representation of competence caused by psychological restrictions. Mistakes reveal nothing about the underlying competence.

12.4.4. Errors

Errors are systematic and may give valuable insight into language acquisition because they are goofs in the learner’s underlying competence. (Scovel 2001) When native speakers make mistakes, they can identify and correct them immediately because they have almost full knowledge of the linguistic structure of their mother tongue. Non-native speakers, L2 learners not only make mistakes, they also commit errors and as they have only an incomplete knowledge of the target language, they are not always able to correct the errors that they make. Thus the learners’ errors reflect a lack of underlying competence in the language that they are learning.
12.5. Teachers’ attitude to errors

Teachers are often afraid of their students’ making errors. They feel that students might learn their mistakes and so they must make sure that everything they say is correct. This attitude goes back to the earlier belief, influenced by the behaviourist model of learning, which maintains that the language can be learnt by repeating correct forms until they become automatic, that is why repeating incorrect forms is harmful. It is now widely agreed that language is not learnt this way: it is a system of rules that the learner has to acquire, that trying out language and making errors are natural and unavoidable parts of this process. Doff (1993) explains that learners are applying rules from their own first languages and they are applying rules which they have internalised but they are in some way intermediate between their native languages(L1) and the target language (L2).
12.5.1. Interlanguage

Errors were regarded as failures for a long time. Now it is accepted that errors are important because they are the indication of the learners’ developing competence, which Selinker (1972) called ‘interlanguage’. Interlanguage refers to the process the learner goes through from the initial stage when he knows very little about the language getting to a final stage when he possesses almost complete fluency. It shows a transitional stage of the learner’s development towards L2 competence. It is a system that the learners construct at any stage in their development. Students’ errors are a very useful way of giving evidence of what they have learnt and haven’t learnt. So instead of regarding errors negatively, as a sign of failure, teachers can see them positively as an indication of what they still need to teach. If teachers try to prevent students from making errors, they can never find out what the learners do not know. Teachers need to correct some errors to help students learn the correct forms of the language. But they don’t have to correct students all the time.

12.6. What are the most important causes of errors?

After discussing the basic differences between mistakes and errors we have to deal with the issue of why learners make errors and why they find it so difficult to correct their errors. Researchers dealing with second language acquisition (Corder, 1974, Odlin,1989, Scovel, 2001) agree that one of the major causes of errors is language transfer.
12.6.1. Language transfer – interference

Language transfer refers to the influence of the mother tongue on the learning of the foreign language. When there are no major differences between L1 and L2, the transfer will be positive, which will make language learning easier. When there are differences, the learner’s L1 knowledge may interfere with learning L2, negative transfer will occur, which is called (mother-tongue) interference. Interference affects all levels of language, such as pronunciation, grammar, lexis, syntax and so on. The errors arise from the mismatch between the grammatical habits of the learners’ mother tongue and the new grammatical patterns that the learners have to acquire in the foreign language. Although mother tongue interference is a very important cause it is not the only one. 
12.6.2. Intraference

Language learners may experience confusion when they find conflicting patterns within the structure of the newly acquired language. Scovel (2001) calls it intraference. A good example is the use of the third person singular suffix, which causes problems to a great number of learners irrespective of what their mother tongue is. The information about the suffixation (in simple present tense there are no suffixes only in the third person singular) confuses the learners and it comes from English itself. One of the most common indication of intraference is overgeneralization.

12.6.3. Overgeneralization

Overgeneralization means that whenever learners meet a new pattern or a new rule they think that the pattern or rule applies to all cases without exception. Errors are produced because the learner extends the target language rule to inappropriate context ignoring the restrictions of the structures. Overgeneralization results from the fact that the learner finds it easier to transfer previous knowledge to produce a new pattern. A good example said by a foreign language learner is the following: “She must goes” Here the strong rule of using “s” in the third person singular is overgeneralized by the learner, and he retains the “s” with the auxiliary verb. 

12.6.4. Teaching-induced errors

According to Corder (1974) errors can be encouraged by the teaching method, as well. Teaching-induced errors result from different aspects of the teaching process itself that the learners are exposed to: the classroom situation, the used material, the teacher’s language use, the teaching method.  They are difficult to identify. They may be due to the fact that the teaching material is not appropriate to the class, or there are some deficiencies in the teaching methodology. The teacher can also induce errors by using overgeneralization or simplification himself in an attempt to help the learners understand the new material.

It is important to identify the causes of errors and mistakes, because this knowledge may help the teacher to decide how to respond. Errors of interference and overgeneralization provide a key to learners current’ understanding of the language system and may provide the teacher with evidence on which to base decisions about what to teach explicitly. 

12.7. Types of errors

According to the above mentioned causes of errors we can distinguish between two groups of errors: interlingual/transfer errors, which are due to the interference of the learners’ mother tongue, and intralingual/developmental errors, which are due to the new language learned. 

Errors can be grouped according to their gravity and treatment, as well. Krashen (1982) speaks about three kinds of errors, which he considers the most relevant errors that are to be dealt with: global errors, stigmatized and the most frequent errors. Global errors, which make communication impossible because they disable the comprehension of the communicative message, are necessary to be corrected. Stigmatized errors (use of taboo words, socially unacceptable words or violent language) are to be treated immediately. The group of the most frequently occurring errors includes errors which are to be corrected no matter which group they belong to.

Bárdos (2000) groups the written errors on the basis of their gravity: Qualitative errors are errors that are so serious they impede communication or distort the information transferred. Quantitative errors are errors (misspelled words, misused structures, synonyms, style) that do not affect communication. However, if any of these quantitative errors distort the meaning they may become qualitative errors.

12.8. Responding to oral errors

Error correction should be positive to encourage students to concentrate on what they have got right. Teachers have to praise students for correct answers, even for partly correct answers, so as to make them feel they are making progress. Teachers should avoid humiliating students or making them feel that making a mistake or an error is bad. Doff (1993) emphasises that a good teacher should be aware of the effect on each individual learner of correcting the errors, that is why s/he should be flexible and use different strategies according to the kind of error, the ability and personality of the student, the kind of activity,  the general atmosphere in the class.  First the difference between mistakes and errors has to be clarified, because the kind of error will determine what correction strategy is to be employed.

Several teachers consider oral correction more difficult than written correction because they have to make decisions quickly about correction, as they cannot spend too much time correcting errors, because it gives them too much importance and holds up the lesson. Teachers have to consider several factors: 

-	what to correct (the nature of the error or mistake), 
-	when to correct (students purpose in speaking, concentrating on fluency
               or accuracy), 
-	how much to correct (selection of errors to be corrected, individual or
               common problem, 
-	the ease with which the error or mistake can be corrected, avoidance of 
               overcorrection) 
-	how to correct (indication of the error, person providing correction,
               personality and ability of the student). 

Very little time is to be spent on mistakes, as students are usually able to correct themselves either unprompted or with some guidance. Errors are to be dealt with, because the student may think that what he is saying is correct, or does not know the correct form or even if he knows what should be the correct answer he cannot get it right. 

The issue of when and what to correct is related to what the focus is at the time: accuracy or fluency. It depends on the kind of the activity we are doing and the aim of the activity: we want students to produce accurate language or whether we want them to express themselves freely and develop fluency.

12.8.1. Accuracy

Accuracy is important for learners in the accurate reproduction stage (Harmer,1991), when they are given controlled practice in the form of the language, during which they practise carefully the structure that has just been presented to them. In this stage immediate error correction is necessary. There are two basic stages: the teacher indicates that something is wrong then asks for correction. It is important that the student should be shown that something is not accurate, where the error is and what kind of error it is. How can the teacher indicate incorrectness?
12.8.2. Indication of incorrectness

Harmer (1991) suggests several techniques:

Repeating 
The teacher asks the student repeat what she/he has just said, by using the word ‘again’ with questioning intonation to indicate that something is wrong.

Echoing 
The teacher repeats what the student has just said using a questioning intonation, or repeats the sentence up to the error/mistake and ass someone to continue. Gower and Walters (1983) warn us to be very careful not to echo the errors in a mocking way because it might discourage the student.

Denial 
The teacher simply can say that the answer is not right and ask the student to repeat it. It may be more discouraging than the earlier techniques.

Questioning 
The teacher can ask the whole class ‘Is that correct?’ The advantage of this technique is that it focuses the attention of the whole class on the problem, but it might cause the student who made the error or mistake to feel more embarrassed.

Expression 
The teacher can show that the response was incorrect by a facial expression or with some gesture, but it must be done carefully so that the student will not think that the teacher’s expression is mockery.

12.8.3. Ways of correction

There are several ways of correction that can be employed in the classroom.

Self-correction
After the student recognizes what is incorrect in his/her response, s/he should be able to correct him/herself. Self-correction is the best technique, because the student will remember it better.  

Peer correction
If the student cannot correct him/herself the teacher can encourage other students to supply correction.  This technique is to be applied tactfully, so that the student who originally made the mistake will not feel humiliated. In the case of errors, it is useful if after peer correction the teacher goes back to the student who made the error and gets him/her to say it correctly. Edge (1990) mentions the following advantages of peer correction:

- it encourages cooperation, students get used to the idea that they can learn
         from each other
- both learners (who made the error and who corrects) are involved in listening 
         to and thinking about the language
- the teacher gets a lot of important information about the learners’ ability
- if students learn to practice peer correction without hurting each other’s
         feelings, they will do the same in pair-work activities.

 However, it may happen, that whenever the teacher asks for peer correction from the whole class, it is always the same students who answer. In this case the teacher has to make sure that other students are involved as well.

Teacher correction
If no one can correct, the teacher must realise that the point has not yet been learnt properly. In that case the teacher can re-explain the problematic item of language, especially if the teacher sees that the majority of the class has the same problem. There might be more repetition and practice necessary.

We must not forget that the main aim of correction is to facilitate the students to learn the new language item correctly. That is why it is important that after correction the teacher has to ask the student who originally made the error or mistake to give the correct response. 

12.8.4. Fluency 

The above techniques are appropriate during accuracy work, when grammatical correctness is the main focus. However, there are several occasions, when students are trying to use the language more freely and fluently for communication.  The teacher has to encourage fluency, because this will allow learners to experience uninterrupted, meaningful communication. If students say something meaningful they need to feel that what they are saying is more important than how they are saying it. The teacher has to accept that making mistakes in language use is necessary to language learning. That is why the teacher doesn’t correct linguistic mistakes immediately when students are involved in fluency practice unless the mistakes affect the communication. If this is the case, the teacher may want to correct, but correction should be ‘gentle’ (Harmer, 1991) Gentle correction means that the teacher does not want to seriously intervene and spoil the atmosphere of pair-work or freer conversation, so the teacher just indicates the student that a mistake has been made, gives the correct form but does not spend too much time on it and does not make the student repeat it. 

Although in communicative activities students are allowed to use any language they like, it does not mean that the teacher cannot use any form of correction when fluency work is taking place. However, guidance and correction cannot be given during the activity, only afterwards. Edge (1990) suggests employing the technique of delayed correction. While the students are involved in communication activities in pairs or in small groups the teacher can monitor their performance by walking round making notes of the mistakes and errors, and after the activity give individual students notes with the errors they have made indicating the way of correction or discuss the errors with the class. If there are common mistakes, they can be written on the blackboard and corrected by the students. It might be necessary to have more practice in the given structure. 

12.9. Correction of written errors

The same principles apply when written work is corrected. Sometimes the teacher concentrates on accuracy, the other time the teacher may be concerned with the content of writing. Written work is to be marked according to the purpose: if the aim is communication, the written work should not be marked according to e.g. spelling. The basic principle is that controlled writing is to be corrected tightly but in the case of guided or free compositions, when the aim is fluency and comprehensibility rather than strict accuracy we should correct less and react to it as communication. However, we have to agree with Harmer (1991) and Doff (1993) that teachers often exaggerate the importance of accuracy. It means that the students’ work is covered with red ink and no comment can be found on the content, even if it was interesting. The great number of corrections will discourage the students. It is better to reduce the amount of underlining and write corrections in the margin; this way the page will look less heavily corrected. 

The same stages are to be followed in the correction of written work as in oral correction. The teacher indicates where the student has made important errors. The teacher can use a system of abbreviations or symbols to indicate the line or the place in a line where the mistake occurs, and the nature of the mistakes: Sp for spelling, Gr for grammar, WO for word order, T for tense etc. The use of correction codes by the teacher instead of giving full correction is a widespread practice, the rationale behind it is that it encourages students to think about their writing and correct them themselves.  Students can be given back their pieces of writing and asked to correct them individually. The teacher also can ask students to exchange their pieces of written work and discuss them in groups so that they can correct each other’s errors. Then some extra practice can be given in the case of common errors or serious errors. However, some learners may prefer their errors to be corrected in full, saying that they are unable to correct some of the mistakes they made themselves, which may be true in the case of errors of vocabulary. Teachers can vary their approach according to the wishes of individual learners.

Revision questions and tasks

1.	Explain the difference between mistakes and errors?
2.	What do you mean by slips and attempts?
3.	What are the most important causes of errors?
a.	What are the most important factors that the teacher has to consider when 
               responding to oral errors?
b.	Mention various ways of correcting students’ errors (oral and written).

13. EVALUATION

Evaluation is a broad term which involves the systematic way of gathering reliable and relevant information for the purpose of making decisions. Evaluation may focus on different components of a course: the achievement of the learners, the teachers, quality of the materials, the appropriateness of the objectives, the teaching methodology, the syllabus etc. 
Evaluative information can be both quantitative (e.g. test scores) and qualitative. (e.g. comments/opinions) in form (Bachman,1990 Lynch, 1996) and can be collected  through different methods, which  require the use of different data gathering instruments, such as questionnaires, interviews, classroom observation, study of documents, tests, ratings. In practice, most evaluations are concerned with the evaluation of programmes or courses as a whole. Evaluation can make use of tests but it is not limited to such forms. Apart from using tests, evaluation in the classroom may be based on the teacher’s own subjective assessment (overall impression), and the assessment of the students’ classwork and their homework.

13.1. Assessment

Although in several cases the terms evaluation and assessment can be used interchangeably, we need to distinguish between these two terms. Assessment involves testing, measuring or judging the progress, the achievement or the language proficiency of the learners.  The focus is on the students’ learning and the outcomes of teaching. Assessment may be one part of an evaluation. In some cases classroom assessment can be non-judgemental, and does not provide evidence for evaluating or grading students, it is simply used to assess and provide early feedback on the students’ learning before tests, midterm and final exams are administered.

13.1.1 Forms of assessment

There is a distinction between formative and summative assessment. Formative assessment is used to monitor the students’ progress during a course, to check how much they have learnt of what they should have learnt, and then using this information future teaching might be modified if necessary. It can be carried out in the form of informal tests and quizzes and it can be the basis for feedback to the students. Summative assessment is used at the end of a term, a semester, or a year, to assess how much has been achieved by individuals or groups. It is usually carried out by using more formal tests.

13.2. Measurement

The terms measurement, test and evaluation are often used synonymously, and in practice they may refer to the same activity. However, apart from their superficial similarities they are distinct from each other. Measurement in the social sciences is the process of quantifying the characteristics of persons according to explicit procedures and rules (Bachman, 1990) It means that we assign numbers to the different mental characteristics, attributes and abilities, such as aptitude, intelligence, motivation, fluency in speaking, achievement in reading comprehension, and this quantification must be done according to well defined and set rules and procedures. 

13.3. Tests

An educational test is a measurement instrument which is designed to elicit a specific sample of an individual’s language behaviour.  (Bachman, 1990)  Language tests provide the means for focusing on the specific language abilities that we are interested in. The elicited specific kinds of language behaviour then can be interpreted as the evidence of the abilities which we are interested in. 

Tests are often used for several pedagogical purposes.

-	they may give diagnostic information to the teacher about where the learners are at the given moment to help decide what to teach next. 
-	tests also give information to the learners about what they know, so that they can decide what they need to learn or review. In this way tests provide students with a sense of achievement and progress in their learning and this way may motivate students to learn specific material. 
-	at the same time tests give tasks which themselves can provide useful practice. 
-	tests assessing performance provide a clear indication of reaching a certain phase in the course such as the end of a unit, or the end of the course. 
-	tests may also be used for purely descriptive purposes in doing research.
-	sometimes tests are misused in the classroom, and are used as a means to get a noisy class to keep quiet and concentrate, which is a very bad practice. 

In summary, it can be said that not all measurements are tests, not all tests are evaluative, and not all evaluation involves either measurement or tests.
13.4. Criteria of good tests

It is always the tester’s task to provide the best solution to a particular testing problem. But what is common is that every test or testing system has to fulfil the following requirements:

-	consistently provide accurate measures of precisely the abilities in which we are interested (validity and reliability)
-	have a beneficial effect on teaching (in those cases where the tests are likely to influence teaching  (washback)
-	be economical in terms of time and money (practicality) (Hughes, 2003)

13.4.1. Validity 

Validity always refers to the degree to which the gathered empirical evidence supports the adequacy and appropriateness of the inferences that are made from the scores (Bachman 1990) It means that the interpretations and uses that we make of test scores are to be valid, in other words, a test is said to be valid to the extent that is measures what it is supposed to measure, (Alderson, 1995) If the test is not valid for the purpose for which it was designed, the scores  do not mean what they are supposed to mean. There are different types of validity, which in reality are different ’methods’ of assessing validity (Bachman 1990) There are three main types/aspects of validity that can be distinguished: internal, external and construct validity.

 Internal validity relates to the perceived content of the test and its perceived effect. There are three aspects: face validity, content and response validity 

- Face validity refers to the surface credibility or public acceptability of the test. It involves intuitive judgment about the test content made by so called ’lay’ people, who are involved in the testing process but  who are not experts in testing. Such people include non expert users, students, their teachers, administrators. If test takers accept the test as a face valid test, they are more likely to perform to the best of their ability on that test. Data on face validity can be collected by interviewing test takers, students or asking them to complete questionnaires about their feelings about or reactions to the test that they have taken.

- Content validity shows whether the test contains a representative sample of the relevant language skills. It can be proved by a systematic analysis of the test content carried out by experts, who make their judgments by comparing it with e.g. the test specification, which states what the content should be or with a formal syllabus or curriculum, or by rating test items and texts following a precise list of criteria . A further alternative can be interviewing teachers of a range of academic subjects, or administering a questionnaire survey in which respondents are asked to make judgments about the texts and tasks.

- Response validity can be checked by gathering information on how test takers respond to the test items. It can be collected by asking learners and test takers to tell how they responded to the test item, what their test taking behaviour was, because the reasoning and the processes they follow when they are solving the items give important indications of what the test is testing. 

External validity relates to procedures which compare students’ test scores with measures of their ability taken from outside the test. It has two types: concurrent and predictive validity. 

 - Concurrent validation involves comparing the test scores of the candidates with some other measure for the same candidates taken roughly at the same time as the test. This measure can be expressed numerically with statistical methods by correlating students’ test results with their test scores gained on other tests, with teachers’ rankings or with the students’ own ratings of their language ability in the form of self assessment.

- Predictive validation involves comparing the students’ test scores with some other external measure taken some time after the test has been administered. This measure also can be expressed numerically with statistical methods by correlating students’ test results with their scores gained on other tests taken some time later (e.g. correlate entrance test results with scores of final tests).

Construct validity shows to what extent the test is based upon its underlying theory, that is, how well test performance can be interpreted as a meaningful measure of some characteristic or quality. The term ‘construct’ refers to a psychological construct, a theoretical concept about a kind of language behaviour that the test makers want to measure. It can be regarded as a kind of attribute or ability of people which is assumed to be reflected in test performance.  Construct validity refers to the extent to which performance on tests is consistent with the predictions that test makers make based on a theory of abilities, or constructs. (Bachman, 1990) It can be assessed by correlating different test components (sub tests) with each other or by complex statistics, a combination of internal and external validation .
	
13.4.2. Reliability

Reliability refers to the consistency with which a test can be scored, that is, consistency from person to person, time to time or place to place. It means that tests are to be constructed, administered and scored in such a way that the scores obtained on a test on a particular occasion are likely to be very similar to those which would have been obtained if it had been administered with the same students with the same ability, but at a different time (Hughes, 1991)  There are two components of test reliability: 

-	the reliability of the scores on the performance of candidates from
               occasion to occasion, which can be ensured by the construction and the 
               administration
-	the reliability of scoring 

13.4.2.1. Reliability of scoring

Reliability of scoring can be achieved more easily with objectively scored tests (e.g. tests of reading and listening comprehension), in which scoring does not require the scorer’s personal judgement of the correctness, because the test items can be marked on the basis of right or wrong. Scorer reliability is especially important in the case of subjectively scored tests (i.e. tests of writing and speaking skills), because they cannot be assessed on a right or wrong basis, assessment requires a judgement on the part of the scorers. There are two aspects of scorer reliability: intra-rater reliability and inter-rater reliability.

- intra-rater reliability is achieved if the same scorer gives the same set of oral performances or written texts the same scores on two different occasions.  It can be measured by means of a correlation coefficient

- inter-rater reliability refers to the degree of consistency of scores given by two or more scorers to the same set of  oral performances or written texts.

The reliability of a test can be quantified in the form of a reliability coefficient. It can be worked out by comparing two sets of test scores. These two sets can be obtained by administering the same test to the same group of test takers twice (test-retest method), or by splitting the test into two equivalent halves and giving separate scores for the two halves, then correlating the scores (split half method) The more similar are the two sets of scores the more reliable is the test said to be. (Alderson, 1995)

13.5. The relationship of validity and reliability

A test cannot be valid if it cannot provide consistently accurate measurements. It means that a valid test must be reliable, too. However, a reliable test may not be valid. It depends partly of what exactly we want to measure. For example multiple choice tests can be made highly reliable especially if there are enough items, but performance on a multiple choice test cannot be regarded a highly valid measure of one’s overall language ability. There is always some tension between reliability and validity. In order to maximise reliability it is often necessary to reduce validity. An oral test may be a valid measure but performance on it may be difficult to assess reliably. In practice there are only degrees of both that testers want to achieve, shortly there is a trade-off between the two: one is maximised at the expense of the other.

13.6. The relationship between teaching and testing

We have discussed two very important criteria of a good test: validity and reliability.
Another requirement is that a test should exert beneficial effect on teaching in cases when the tests are likely to affect teaching. This effect on teaching and learning is called washback /backwash. It might happen that a test is considered to be so important that the preparation for it may dominate the whole teaching and learning. If the teaching is poor and inappropriate  and the testing is good, that is, the test administered is a valid test, based on the real communicative needs of the students and includes tasks very similar to those that they have to perform in real life, testing will have beneficial washback. But if the content and the testing techniques are very far from the objectives of the course, if the teaching is good and appropriate, testing is not, there may be a harmful washback.

The proper relationship between teaching and testing should be that of a partnership, testing should support good teaching, and if it is necessary it should exert a corrective influence on bad teaching. Within teaching systems, individuals need to be given feedback of their achievement, but in some cases teachers’ assessments of their students might not be sufficient, especially if the achievements of groups of learners are to be compared in order to make decisions. That is why tests are necessary, but it is very important that tests should be of good quality.

13.7. Practicality

Practicality refers to the efficiency in terms of the necessary equipment, the time needed for setting, administering or marking the test, that is how easy and quick it is to set or score the test, how much it costs, how simple it is, how much equipment is required to administer it.
13.8. Test types

Tests can be distinguished by the purposes for which testing is carried out.
There can be several purposes according to the kind of information that is sought by the tester. The most common categories are the following:

-    measure overall language proficiency independent of any language course that the candidates may have attended - proficiency test
-  measure the students’ achievement on a completed course of studies - achievement test
-   measure how much the students have learnt of the recently taught material progress test
-    diagnose students’ strengths and weaknesses in language knowledge and use, to find out what they know and what they do not know - diagnostic test
-   assist placement of students by identifying the stage or part of a teaching programme which is the most appropriate to the level of their proficiency – placement test
-    identify general abilities, to find out who is to be good at learning languages – aptitude test

13.8.1. Aptitude tests

With the help of aptitude tests we can predict how good language learners students are likely to become. These are given before the start of a language course. These tests are not target language tests they are rather tests of general intelligence and linguistic ability, and try to focus on factors thought to contribute to language learning: memory, grammatical ability, vocabulary level in native language, interest in the foreign language, language analysis, sound discrimination, language background, language learning attitudes, verbal intelligence, language aptitude, educational level, age, learning style etc.)

13.8.2. Placement tests 

They measure the students’ general knowledge of the language, test their previous language-learning experience in order to separate them into different levels of language proficiency so that they can be arranged in groups or language classes of the appropriate level. 
Placement tests are administered at the start of a new language course or at the start of a new phase of a language course. They tend to be quick, simple and easy to administer and that is why they aim to make only a rough estimate of language proficiency. Placement tests work on the principle of representative sampling, they select one or two areas of the students’ language knowledge and take this sample as a representative of their entire proficiency. The most commonly used areas are grammar and vocabulary. Most placement tests rely on objective techniques for reasons of reliability and practicality. 

13.8.3. Achievement tests 

They look back over a longer period to check how much of the language syllabus has been acquired by the students, whether they have achieved the course objectives. There can be several purposes why this information is needed: achievement tests are used for certification or promotion to a more advanced course, or as an entry qualification for higher education. Besides, by giving assessment of their achievement the test result can motivate students to go further, the information can be used for planning the next phase, it can show how successful the whole course has been in achieving objectives, moreover it can show the possible strengths and weaknesses of the whole language programme, which can be used to make amendments in the course programme. Achievement tests are always based on the taught syllabus and the teaching methods used in the course. Their content is closely related to the course content, to the materials and books that were used and the testing techniques reflect the recommended methodology.

Typical examples of achievement tests are end of term tests, and they may be internal, set by the teacher or the school, but quite often they are quite formal and set externally by a ministry of education or a testing authority. As they are looking back over a long period and have to test a broad range of language, they are large-scale tests covering most or all the four skills. They are summative in nature, and are administered at the end of the course (e.g. the end of the semester or school year) 

13.8.4. Progress tests 

They are very similar to achievement tests, in as much that they assess how much of what has been taught has been learnt, but they look back to a shorter period e.g. a teaching unit, a chapter of a textbook and they intend to measure the progress that the students are making. Their content is also based on the course material, but they cover only one and two language points and assess whether the students have mastered these points adequately. They are formative in nature, and given during the course, at the end of a unit of language teaching They are smaller scale tests (often they are called quizzes) because they concentrate only one or two aspects of language and they are informal tests, set by the teacher, with the purpose of obtaining information about which areas need further attention in order to plan future teaching. Theoretically they do not need to be graded, but in practice they are.

13.8.5. Diagnostic tests 

They are used to identify students’ language problems, weaknesses or deficiencies with the purpose of obtaining information of which language areas require further teaching in order to plan future teaching priorities. Then this information can be used to design a syllabus. Diagnostic tests are usually large-scale tests, they look back over a wide range of language that students should have learnt over a long period and assess which areas might be problematic. They are usually administered at the start of a new phase of language teaching (e.g. the start of a new school year)

13.8.6. Proficiency tests  

These tests are designed to measure the test takers’ ability in a language, their present level of mastery regardless of any previous training. The content of a proficiency test is not based on the content, syllabus or objectives of language courses; it is rather based on a specification of what test takers have to be able to do in order to be proficient. Basically proficiency tests are large scale, complex tests, covering a wide range of language and they look forward to language applications in the real world. They are summative, and try to simulate the target language tasks and cover relevant language skills in an authentic way. The main function is to test if the test takers have the necessary language skills or the degree of mastery of these skills. Proficiency tests are usually devised and administered by external testing bodies. 

13.8.6.1. Concepts of proficiency

The most common two concepts of what is meant by proficiency are the following. Proficiency can refer to the present level of the learner’s mastery, that is a complex combination of various skills - reading, listening, speaking, writing, grammatical knowledge, etc. Tests representing this notion of aggregate proficiency contain a broad range of language tasks and have several sub tests. The majority of language exams represent this concept. In some cases proficiency means that the person has sufficient command of the language for a specific purpose, usually occupational or academic, that is, the language knowledge required for a job or an academic course. This concept of specific/applied proficiency is quite common nowadays in ESP (English for Specific Purposes) testing, too.

13.9. Tests of grammar and usage

 Awareness of the grammatical features of the language can be measured by objective test items, each of which is testing one distinct element of the language, one grammatical rule or structure. These items are called “discrete point’ items, discrete meaning ‘single and separate’.

13.9.1. The most common task types (Heaton, 1995)

The majority of these types are discrete point items
 Multiple choice items 

	The police charged the man ……. robbing the bank.
	A. for		B on		C with		D at

They consist of the stem, which presents the problem clearly and concisely and there are three or four options given. The stem can be an incomplete statement, a complete statement and a question. 

Error-recognition multiple choice items

	My car had broken down, so I went there by foot.	
			A               B      C             D

Rearrangement items	

	Not only …………………………………………………………..
/the examination/very difficult/unfair/was/but/it/was/also

The test taker has to unscramble the sentence and write out the sentence by putting the words in their correct order.

Completion items

That car belongs ………… my brother.  (blank completion)
	She ……….. (come) home late yesterday (blank and cue)
They involve production not mere recognition, as they test the ability to put the most appropriate word in the blanks in the sentences, or in a text.

Transformation items

There are two alternatives; the sentence has to be changed according to a given pattern or by using selected words

I haven’t seen her for a year.
It’s a year ……………………..

It’s no use calling her now, she’s on holiday. (point)
………………………………………………………………………

Joining elements (combination items)

A pair of sentences is to be joined using the word given. In some cases they involve quite mechanical responses.

Some questions were difficult. They weren’t answered by several candidates. (WHICH)

Addition items

Students are to insert the given word in the most appropriate place in the sentence
 The children were alone at home in the evenings (OFTEN)	

Cloze procedure

Not all objective task types are discrete-point. There are techniques which require the test taker to combine many elements of the language to perform the task. These techniques are called integrative or global.  A widely used technique is  cloze procedure. A text is taken and words are deleted form it at intervals. The test taker is to restore the missing part. It can be regarded integrative because each cloze test can contain a large number of items, it operates beyond sentence level and gives a full context for each item, and the test taker has to employ a wide range of language skills (lexical, grammatical, cohesive, semantic, contextual and predictive) to fill in the missing item.

There are different forms of cloze procedure

Traditional (also called mechanical deletion) cloze, in which words are deleted at regular intervals, every sixth, seventh or eighth word.
Modified (also called selected deletion) cloze, in which the words are deleted at irregular intervals depending on the test focus. All deletions may focus on the same language point or different but specific language points  e.g. past tense forms, prepositions
Multiple-choice cloze, which is an easier version of a traditional or modified cloze, where several options are offered for each gap.
Banked cloze, in which the deleted words are listed below the gapped text, usually in an alphabetical order.
Authentic cloze, which is a version of a traditional cloze, where a number of letters are cut off from the beginning or/and of each line. The text looks as if it has been clipped in a photocopier.
C-test, in which every second word in a text is partially deleted, leaving the first half of the deleted word. 
Cloze elide, where words which do not belong there are inserted in the text and test takers have to find where the insertions are.

13.10. Assessing receptive skills (reading and listening)

Receptive skills can be tested by objective test techniques, both discrete point and integrative. However, there are techniques which can be regarded as semi-objective as they require the candidate to do some writing, as well.

13.10.1. The most widely used task types

Dual choice is a discrete point technique, in which there are two options, one of which is correct. The most traditional are true/false items, in which the candidates have to decide if the statements are true or false according to the (written or recorded) text. There can be variations which add one more question ‘not stated’, or require the candidate to correct the false statement, thus trying to reduce the 50% chance of getting the right answer.

Multiple choice

It is one of the most common discrete-point task types, because it is easy and quick to score even with a computer. There can be three or four statements (options) given, one of which is correct. However, in listening comprehension it can be more demanding for the test takers as they are required to keep all the options in their mind while listening to the passage.

Matching task

It is a relatively new objective technique, which can be a good alternative to multiple choice items mainly to test reading comprehension. In the task candidates have to match questions on one list to answers on another list. A more exciting variation is multiple matching, which means that there may be more than one matching answer to each question. The multiple matching technique offers a wide choice of reading tasks: matching labels to numbers on a diagram (simple matching), arranging events in a process, matching items to an appropriate heading, matching phrases or sentences to gaps in a text, matching opinions to people identified in the text, sequencing paragraphs to form a text, matching headlines to different texts, etc.

Information transfer 

It is an integrative objective technique, which can be used both in reading and listening comprehension tasks. Test takers have to transfer the verbal information from written or recorded the text in the form of a visual display on to a chart, table, form, a map, for example fill in a table or a chart with the read  or heard information, label a picture, sequence pictures/statements or follow a route on the map. Information transfer is a preferred technique, because these tasks are similar to real life activities and still can be scored objectively, because they require only minimal writing of the test takers to show successful completion of the tasks.

Dictation 

It is an integrative objective task, which involves listening and writing as well.

Gap filling 

This technique requires some writing and is more preferable in testing reading. The candidates are to fill in the blanks with a word or a short phrase after reading the text. There is an extension of this task which is called ‘summary cloze,’ in which there is a summary of the reading passage written by the tester with gaps which the test taker has to fill in  after reading the passage. In another version the candidates have to fill in the blank spaces in a reading text.

Cloze procedure (traditional cloze) was originally used as a test of reading comprehension. It is similar to a gap-filling test, but the words are deleted systematically.

Open-ended questions 

This is the technique which requires the most writing, which makes scoring subjective. To reduce subjectivity the length of the required answers is to be limited. It is advisable that the questions should elicit one correct answer. Short answer questions can be used for testing listening, too, but the questions have to be very short and straightforward and should require a unique, short, obvious answer. 

Translation

It is a preferred technique in bilingual Hungarian language examinations, and it requires as much writing as reading, so although it provides assessment of both the reading process and the product of reading,  it is better to assess it as a piece of written production, and not as a test of reading. Naturally, it is a subjective, integrative task from the point of view of scoring.

13.11. Assessing productive skills (writing and speaking)

	Writing and speaking skills are assessed by subjectively scored integrative task types, which means that scoring is a matter of judgement, that is why it may vary from person to person. 

13.11.1 The most common task types for testing written performance.

According to the extent of controlling test takers’ freedom of expression in their written work three kinds of writing tasks can be distinguished: controlled, guided and free or creative writing tasks. The more controlled the tasks are the easier it is to ensure reliability, but they become less valid measures of writing ability.

Controlled writing tasks impose complete control over both language and content.  They cannot be considered real writing tasks in the sense, that the writers do not produce any/or very limited writing of their own. Controlled writing tasks are: multiple-choice sentence completion, transformation, (these are tests of usage testing grammar at sentence level), cloze/modified cloze, translation, editing/error correction/proof-reading.

Guided writing tasks give a full task environment by specifying several features such as  

- the content/topic/information to be included in the written text (what), 
- the role of the reader, the relationship of reader to writer (to whom)
- the role of the writer him/herself or in an assumed role (who)
- the reason for writing, the effect the writer wants too achieve (explanation, 
        request etc)(why)
- text type, style (informal/formal), genre (how)
- details of date to be used/date of background events (when)
- details of place, background, context, situation (where)

In this way the test taker can get enough information so that s/he can treat the task as a social writing activity, as a real-life activity. Guided writing tasks can be considered authentic tasks as by giving a full task environment they simulate a real-world writing task. This is the way how we write in the real world. The most common writing tasks are: form filling, writing a summary of texts (it is a typical academic writing task), writing from given context or a fully defined situation, responding to an input text (e.g. incoming letter), information transfer from non-verbal input (e.g. describe pictures, diagrams, maps, flowcharts), agreeing or disagreeing with a given statement.

Free composition writing imposes little linguistic control on the writer. In free writing tasks there is minimum control, only the composition titles are given and the test takers are free to express their ideas in their own words. 

13.11.2. Scoring productive writing tests 

Earlier written pieces of work were marked based on the tester’s impression of the language output, which is a fully subjective way, consequently very unreliable. In modern communicative testing we can speak  of  improved subjective scoring, which means that scoring is made reliable by detailed marking schemes, in which  language performance is assessed based on certain categories and subcategories to which marks are assigned. Usually there are three main categories of language performance to be scored: content (the required information included, irrelevant info excluded, content complete, message appropriate), language (accuracy, proportion of errors, vocabulary size, good range of language, accurate spelling and punctuation), and text (style, register and format, textual organisation and cohesion, suitable layout)

Another way of assessing written language performance is the use of yardsticks or scales, which means a set of bands which cover the whole range of language performance from non-user to expert user. Each band has a descriptor of the expected performance in the given band. These descriptors are phrased in real-world terms, which are more meaningful. In practice there are different yardsticks for each skill and they might have separate descriptors for different marking criteria.
13.11.3. Assessing speaking skills

Testing speaking ability is an important aspect of language testing, but it is very difficult to test, as it is a complex skill, moreover speaking skills cannot be separated from the listening skills in many tests of oral production. This interdependence of the speaking and listening skills makes it difficult to analyse precisely and reliably what is tested at any one time. Moreover, spoken language is transient, so without recording the production it is impossible to apply such procedures as in scoring composition, where there is enough time to consult the marking scales. During an oral exam there is a time pressure, examiners are required to make subjective judgement as quickly as possible. Another difficulty in oral testing lies in its administration. Testing large numbers of students employing a limited number of examiners presents large problems and it is a time consuming process.

13.11.4. The most common task types

There is a great variety of tasks that are employed to assess oral production. Just like writing tasks, speaking tasks can also be categorised according to how much potential is given for real communicative interaction, how much the content and the language is controlled. These tasks can be found at different language proficiency examinations
	
Linguistic (controlled) speaking tasks focus on certain aspects of speaking and the spoken language (e.g. pronunciation, knowledge of appropriate conversational exchanges, clichés,) and are far from authentic interaction. However, they can be found in a few language examinations. Controlled tasks are: reading aloud, response to a recorded grammatical cue or a situational cue, interpretation of what the examiners says, simultaneous translation of text in L1.

Guided speaking tasks give details of the context or situation. Typical tasks are: taking and relaying message on the tape, summarising a conversation or a spoken text recorded on the tape, problem solving, interpreting or summarising a written text, role-play, discussion based on an object or a picture belonging to the test taker, discussion based on a book read by the test taker.

Free speaking tasks impose minimum linguistic control on the speaker. Widely used tasks are: prepared presentation on a topic chosen by the candidate in advance, monologue on a given topic chosen at the exam, interview (e.g. discussion of personal information about the candidate, or discussion of a topic or of the candidate’s opinion about the topic), description of a picture chosen.

13.11.5. Scoring speaking tests

The scoring presents the same problem as in the case of writing tasks. There are a lot of elements of subjectivity of assessment, which reduces the reliability of scoring. However, several techniques are available, which can improve reliability, especially if they are employed together: the most effective ones are: the use of marking scales, multiple marking (i.e. the test taker’s performance is marked by two examiners independently), assessor training. Marking scales are usually based on several criteria for the assessment of oral production (e.g. accuracy, appropriacy, range of vocabulary, flexibility of communication, fluency, pronunciation,) to which scores are allocated. Another alternative is to provide yardsticks, which refer to the whole range of language performance achieved in the whole test, describing the required level of ability in each band. 

13.12. Language examinations in Hungary

All kinds of language examinations designed in Hungary are to be accredited by The National Accreditation Board, which after careful examination and analysis give licence for exams to be administered. Certificates issued by accredited language examination centres are recognised by all educational institutions and employers in Hungary.

13.12.1. Accredited language proficiency examinations

There is a great variety of language examination systems offered to candidates wanting to take exams. Examinations can be grouped according to the language content as examinations of general language proficiency in foreign languages and examinations in LSP (languages for specific purposes), which focus on several occupational area, such as business, trade, tourism and catering, information technology, engineering, agriculture, law, diplomacy, military. In terms of the languages used in completing the tasks, there are monolingual language exams, which require the candidate to use exclusively the target language. There are numerous so called bi-lingual language examinations, which contain several tasks which test the ability of the candidates to mediate between their mother tongue and the target language.

Some of the international language examinations have also obtained accreditation, so as to be able to issue their candidates certificates which are acknowledged by the Hungarian State. They are all monolingual language examinations for example Trinity College London ESOL (English for Speakers of Other Languages) (general), University of Cambridge ESOL (general), LCCIEB EFB (London Chamber of Commerce, Business English), Goethe - Institut (general in German language), ÖSD (examinations in German language). There are other international monolingual examinations, (e.g. TOEFL- Test of English as a Foreign Language, IELTS – International English Language Testing System) which have not applied for accreditation.

Examinations of general language proficiency assess the candidates’ present level of mastery through tasks testing a complex combination of various skills and abilities – reading, listening, speaking, writing, grammatical knowledge etc. They have several subtests and contain a wide range of language tasks. Language examinations in LSP test the candidates’ language ability and command of the language for a specific purpose with a view to future application.

The majority of the examinations designed in Hungary are traditionally offered at three levels of language proficiency: Basic, Intermediate and Advanced. However, all the examination centres are required to align the  levels of their examinations in the near future with The Council of Europe’s Common European Framework of Reference for Languages.(Basic  level exams corresponding to B1, Intermediate to B2 and Advanced to C1 level). The Common European Framework (CEFR) describes what language learners have to learn to do in order to use a language for communication and what knowledge and skills they have to develop so as to be able to act effectively. The Framework also defines levels of proficiency, which allow the learners’ language knowledge to be measured. It offers six reference levels for several categories of language use, skills and sub-skills with detailed descriptions of the language ability required at the given level.: Basic User – A1 and A2, Independent User - B1 and B2, Proficient User - C1 and C2.

The table below gives a holistic, global summary of the set of proposed CEF levels

Proficient
User	C2	Can understand with ease virtually everything heard or read. Can summarise information from different spoken and written sources, reconstructing arguments and accounts in coherent presentation. Can express him/herself spontaneously, very fluently and precisely, differentiating finer shades of meaning even in more complex situations.	
	C1	Can understand a wide range of demanding, longer texts, and recognise implicit meaning. Can express him/herself fluently and spontaneously without much obvious searching for expressions. Can use language flexibly and effectively for social, academic and professional purposes. Can produce clear, well-structured, detailed text on complex subjects, showing controlled use of organisational patterns, connectors and cohesive devices.	

Inde-pendent
User
	B2	Can understand the main ideas of complex text on both concrete and abstract topics, including technical discussions in his/her field of specialisation. Can interact with a degree of fluency and spontaneity that makes regular interaction with native speakers quite possible without strain for either party. Can produce clear, detailed text on a wide range of subjects and explain a viewpoint on a topical issue giving the advantages and disadvantages of various points.	
	B1	Can understand the main points of clear standard input on familiar matters regularly encountered at work, school, leisure, etc. Can deal with most situations likely to arise whilst travelling in an area where the language is spoken. Can produce simple connected text on topics which are familiar or of personal interest. Can describe experiences and events, dreams, hopes and ambitions and briefly give reasons and explanations for opinions and plans.	

Basic User	A2	Can understand sentences and frequently used expressions related to areas of most immediate relevance (e.g. very basic personal and family information, shopping, local geography, employment). Can communicate in simple and routine tasks requiring a simple and direct exchange of information on familiar and routine matters. Can describe in simple terms aspects of his/her background, immediate environment and matters in areas of immediate need.	
	A1	Can understand and use familiar everyday expressions and very basic phrases aimed at the satisfaction of needs of a concrete type. Can introduce him/herself and others and can ask and answer questions about personal details such as where he/she lives, people he/she knows and things he/she has. Can interact in a simple way provided the other person talks slowly and clearly and is prepared to help.	

Revision questions and tasks

1.	What is meant by evaluation, assessment, measurement and testing?

a.	What are the most well-known types of tests?
b.	What are the different aspects of validity and
                    reliability?

2.	Which are the most common task types to assess receptive skills?
3.	Which are the most common task types to assess productive skills?
4.	Which are the different ways of scoring tests of writing or oral ability?

a.	Analyse Cambridge ESOL, ORIGO Language
                              Examinations and the Hungarian MATURA Exams 
                              (see Appendix) and point out the similarities and
                              differences.

14. COURSE-BOOK EVALUATION
14.1. The basic principles of course-book evaluation

“Coursebook analysis and evaluation is useful in teacher development and helps teachers to gain good and useful insights into the nature of the material. Similarly, in teacher training, materials evaluation is a valuable component and serves the dual purpose of sensitizing student teachers to some of the more important features to look for in coursebooks and familiarizing them with a range of published materials” (Cunningsworth 1995:14).

There are two possible ways of making a judgement about a language coursebook; however, the one we might as well call “impressionistic overview” (Cunningsworth 1995:1) does not seem to be reliable as opposed to the professional evaluation based on a number of thoroughly worked out criteria. 

Before arriving at the decision, whether the chosen course materials will fit our purposes, it is highly advisable to make a list of guidelines that help us with the analyses since the ”results of an evaluation will probably lead to a large investment of money in a published course” (Hutchinson – Waters 1987:96). Further more, from the moment ”such an investment is made, you will probably have to live with the consequences of it for some time, even if it later proves to have been a bad choice” (Hutchinson – Waters 1987:96). 

Evaluating course materials carefully is not an easy job at all. The process of evaluation ”is basically a matching process: matching needs to available solutions” (Hutchinson – Waters 1987:97). Before going into a more detailed explanation and interpretation of what this matching means, one should come up with some kind of definition for the notion of needs. 

Every foreign language course should be preceded and thus based upon a thoroughly carried out needs analysis. It involves the assessing of learners’ needs and aims concerning the language they are going to start. Cunningsworth (1995) enumerates several points to consider such as learners’ ages, levels, expectations and motivation, their previous language-learning experience, learning styles and interests. These points may, of course, seem obvious still, one cannot be sure whether they are constantly kept in mind during the whole course. Needs analysis therefore must not be regarded as a procedure that is useful only when grouping our learners but it also has to be given an important role until the course comes to an end. Learners, for example, who do not prove to be able to keep up with their classmates, will require special attention from the teacher. Every learner has individual personalities and changing attitudes towards the world and that has to be recognised, acknowledged and kept in mind by the teacher.
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) bring learners’ gender, nationalities and educational backgrounds as well into consideration, too.  Cunningsworth (1995) pays special attention to teachers by focusing on various aspects of a learning-teaching situation, such as the methodological approach they tend to prefer, the level of personal initiative they bring to their teaching, their freedom to diverge from the syllabus and whether they have the right to adapt or supplement the standard course-book.

The most important task before starting a course, or programme as Cunningsworth (1995) refers to it, is to specify the aims of it as well as its specific objectives, such as language items, skills, functions to be covered.
It is also essential to describe the situation in which the learning and the teaching processes will take place in terms of the role and status of the target language in learners’ home country, intensity and length of the course, technical assistance and other resources available. 

By bringing these factors together – that is the analyses of learners’ needs, teachers’ abilities and attitudes towards teaching, the aims and objectives of a given course, the learning-teaching situation – one can have a greater chance to get a clear picture of our ideal course materials and we will probably be able to match our needs to available solutions.

14.2. Basic steps and types of course-book evaluation

Hutchinson and Waters (1987) divide the evaluation process into four basic steps such as defining criteria, subjective analysis, objective analysis and matching. The first step involves our decision concerning the bases on which we will judge our materials. It also requires us to decide which criteria we will consider important. Subjective analysis means the analysis of our course, in terms of materials requirements whereas objective analysis means the analysis of materials being evaluated. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) warn teachers not to consider their own subjective analysis as a fixed set of requirements since it may blind them to possibly useful alternatives. One is also advised to set up a rank order of factors in order to see to what extent the course materials match our criteria such as language areas or content. 

Cunningsworth (1995) suggests that there can be three types of material evaluation of which the first one is called pre-use evaluation. This is by all means the most difficult type of evaluation ”as there is no actual experience of using the book for us to draw on. In this case we are looking at future or potential performance of the course-book” (Cunningsworth 1995:14). The next type is called in-use evaluation which means that the material is evaluated while one applies it in the current teaching-learning context. The third type – post-use evaluation – involves a ”retrospective assessment of a course-book’s performance and can be useful for identifying strengths and weaknesses which emerge over a period of continuous use” (Cunningsworth 1995:14).

Grant (1987) comes up with a three-stage long evaluation process which includes initial evaluation, detailed evaluation and in-use evaluation. Initial evaluation functions as a filter with which one can filter out obviously unsuitable materials. This filtering out is best achieved by the application of the so-called CATALYST test. As Grant (1987) notices a course-book should act as a catalyst in the classroom and as such, it should facilitate change. The letters of the acronym CATALYST stand for “the eight criteria by which we can decide whether a textbook is suitable for our classroom” (Grant 1987:120):

-	C stands for questioning whether the material is communicative enough. According to this criterion, learners should be able to communicate in the target language as a result of using the given book.
-	A stands for aims. Teachers should investigate whether the material fits in with their aims and objectives, which may be laid down by the authorities or set by themselves.
-	T refers to the course’s teachability in terms of the clear layout of the book and its easy-to-use organisation.
-	A stands for available add-ons, that is one should examine whether additional materials such as teacher’s books, workbooks, CDs and other _ength-components are available for classroom use.
-	L refers to learners’ level as well as that of the book. They should by all means match.
-	Y stands for (y)our overall impressions of the material.
-	S means the extent to which students are likely to find the coursebook interesting.
-	T stands for the question whether the book has been tried and tested in real learning situations. 

Harmer (1983) enumerates seven major headings for materials evaluation form such as practical considerations, layout and design, activities, skills, language type, subject and content and guidance. By practical considerations he means the price of the materials and availability of the integral parts such as teacher’s book, tapes etc. Layout and design means the physical attractiveness of the materials to students while the third heading (activities) mainly refers to the useful and motivating nature of practice activities found in the materials. The ’skills’ heading intends to answer whether the materials lay enough emphasis on developing students’ skills according to their needs assessed previously in the needs analysis process. Language type investigates whether the language in the materials is realistic, whether it is at the right level and of the right type for students. The ’ subject and content’ heading checks whether the given topics are relevant, interesting and motivating enough for students. Guidance means how easily teachers and students can use the materials, follow the instructions and understand the course objectives. 

Cunningsworth (1995) states that teachers have to be confident that the course materials they select are the best and most appropriate available. Piloting a new material before adopting it seems to be quite effective but a little bit _engthy. This opinion is supported by Grant (1987) who says that piloting new materials is seldom possible in public education systems. One can also ask for other practising teachers’ opinions about the new material. Learners’ views on the usefulness of course-books are also worth asking for, since “they are the prime users of the material” (Cunningsworth 1995:8-9). A detailed analysis, however, might prove to be the best way to learn as many pieces of information about the new material as possible.

14.3. General characteristics of course-books

Grant (1987) remarks that the perfect textbook as such does not exist, however, he adds that there is a best book available for every teacher and their learners due to the wide range of published materials on the market. The ideal course-book should satisfy three conditions, namely that it should suit learners’ needs, interests and abilities, it should suit the teachers, and it also has to meet the needs of official public teaching syllabuses or examinations.

Course-books can have numerous roles in foreign language teaching and might be used for presenting language material, providing learners with a wide range of activities, providing learners with grammatical rules and exercises, vocabulary and phonetic transcriptions; they can also stand for a given syllabus; they can instigate autonomous learning; they may be considered as a set of guidelines along which young, unexperienced teachers can manage their lessons. Teaching systematically without a course-book would be very difficult for most teachers, besides, learners also do require a course-book. “They find that a folder full of classroom handouts fails to satisfy in ways that a textbook can. A folder is no substitute for a textbook”, which “offers a systematic revision of what learners have done”, and functions as “a guide to what they are going to do” (Grant 1987:7-8). 

Harmer also enumerates a number of obvious advantages of course-books: 

”Good textbooks often contain lively and interesting material; they provide a sensible progression of language items, clearly showing what has to be learnt and in some cases summarising what has been studied so that students can revise grammatical and functional points that they have been concentrating on. Textbooks can be systematic about the amount of vocabulary presented to the student and allow student to study on his own outside the class. Good textbooks also relieve the teacher from the pressure of having to think of original material for every class” (Harmer 1983:219).

Zalánné and Petneki (1997) remark that a course-book highly influences teaching styles and students’ learning styles. It might be useful to try out new materials after a certain period of time in order to reassess and refresh the way one teaches. Zalánné and Petneki (1997) advise teachers to define their relationships to course-books, which can help them avoid overestimating the role of the printed materials they use.

There are a number of other important rules, worth being kept in mind during language courses. Teachers should not, for instance, insist rigidly on their printed materials, especially if they do not completely satisfy learners’ needs. It is also advisable to study thoroughly the comments in the teacher’s book attached to the course package so that one can have a clear-cut picture about the authors’ intentions, aims and objectives within each unit and the whole material as well. Every teacher has to be aware of the fact that their attitude towards the course-book they use in class will have a great impact on students’ opinions on the book as well as the language itself. Making students assess the materials they work with may also reveal new pieces of information about the course-book. Both students and teachers can benefit from such a common assessment. It will probably result in better classroom cooperation. Using course-book exercises, however, as a means of keeping discipline in the classroom will definitely contribute to students’ negative feelings towards the materials and thus reduce their classroom efforts. (Zalánné – Petneki,1997)

Harmer (1983) implies that course-books can have negative effects on teaching as well, since they tend to concentrate on introducing new language and controlled work, which might result in teachers’ depending heavily on the course-book. ”Textbooks also tend to follow the same format from one unit to the next” (Harmer 1983:219). This rigid sequence, as Harmers remarks, makes each unit look more or less alike. 

A teacher ”who over-uses a textbook and thus repeatedly follows the sequence in each unit may become boring over a period of time for he will find himself teaching the same type of activities in the same order again and again. In such a situation, even with good textbooks, students may find the study of English becoming routine and thus less and less motivating. Classes will start appearing increasingly similar and the routine will become increasingly monotonous” (Harmer 1983:219-220).

Harmer (1983) states that course-books are written for a general class made up of general students, however, every class is different from each other. 

Hutchinson and Waters define what course materials are supposed to do. They identify six main purposes of materials:

-	” Materials provide a stimulus to learning. Good materials do not teach: they encourage learners to learn. 
-	Materials help to organise the teaching-learning process, by providing a path through the complex mass of the language to be learnt. 
-	Materials embody a view of the nature of language and learning.
-	Materials should try to create a balanced outlook which both reflects the complexity of the task, yet makes it appear manageable.
-	Materials can have a very useful function in broadening the basis of teacher training, by introducing teachers to new techniques.
-	Materials provide models of correct and appropriate language use” (Hutchinson – Waters 1987:107-108).
	
This list might be completed with the following points enumerated by Zalánné and Petneki (1997):

-	Course-books can create a basis for the teaching and learning of other foreign languages.
-	They control the rhythm of teaching and learning. 
-	They help teachers’ work by providing them with language resources such as texts and different kinds of exercises.

14.4. Main criteria for selecting course-books

Cunningsworth enumerates a number of factors that might influence the degree of dependence or autonomy in choosing and using course-books. These are the following:

-	“The type of the educational system in which learning/teaching takes place. 
-	The syllabus and/or materials constraints imposed upon teachers by education authorities.
-	Learners’ culture and their expectations concerning the target language course.
-	The nature and amount of training for language teachers.
-	Teachers’ experience and their confidence.
-	Teachers’ command of English (if they are non-native speakers).
-	The availability of alternative course-books and resources for materials production” (Cunningsworth 1995:11). 

The application of Cunningsworth’s guidelines (1995) can also contribute to a more precise evaluation of the materials one uses or intends to choose. Guideline One conveys the message that a course-book should correspond to its users’ - that is the learners’ - needs, which means that they should match the aims and objectives of the language-learning programme. Guideline Two emphasises the importance of engaging students’ interest and challenging their intellect, which “will motivate them to become more independent in their learning and in their use of English. This can be done by including interesting, stimulating topics and by encouraging learners to think for themselves around these topics and discuss them with others” (Cunningsworth 1995:15). Guideline Three directs one’s attention to course-books that are interesting for our learners and contain lively and well-presented topics and activities aiming at the strengthening of learners’ motivation. ”Helping students to realize how much progress they have made and encouraging them to review their achievement will also add to motivation and enhance learning” (Cunningsworth 1995:15). Guideline Four suggests that the course-book should not support learning but it should also provide a methodology.

Bearing these guidelines in mind, it is worth examining Grant’s questionnaires (1987) designed to help teachers choose the best course-book available.

"Questionnaire - Part 1: Does the book suit to your students?

1.	Is it attractive? Given the average age of your students, would they enjoy using it?
2.	Is it culturally acceptable?
3.	Does it reflect what you know about your students' needs and interests?
4.	Is it about the right level of difficulty?
5.	Is it about the right length? 
6.	Are the course's physical characteristics appropriate?
7.	Are there enough authentic materials, so that the students can see that the  book is relevant to real life?
8.	Does it achieve an acceptable balance between knowledge about the
language, and practice in using the language?
9.	Does it achieve an acceptable balance between the relevant language
skills, and integrate them so that work in one skill area helps the others?
10.	Does the book contain enough communicative activities to enable the students to use the language independently?” (Grant 1987:122-127).

“Questionnaire - Part 2: Does the book suit the teacher?

1.	Is your overall impression of the contents and layout of the course favourable?
2.	Is there a good, clear teacher's guide with answers and help on methods and additional activities?
3.	Can one use the book in the classroom without constantly having to turn to the teacher's guide?
4.	Are the recommended methods and approaches suitable for you, your students and your classroom?
5.	Are the approaches easily adaptable if necessary?
6.	Does using the course require little or no time-consuming preparation?
7.	Are useful ancillary materials such as tapes, workbooks and visuals provided?
8.	Is there sufficient provision made for tests and revision?
9.	Does the book use a 'spiral' approach, so that items are regularly revised and used again in different contexts?
10.	Is the course appropriate for, and liked by, colleagues?” (Grant 1987:122-127).

“Questionnaire - Part 3: Does the textbook suit the syllabus and examination?

1.	Has the book been recommended or approved by the authorities?
2.	Does the book follow the official syllabus in a creative manner?
3.	Is the course well-graded, so that it gives well-structured and systematic coverage of the language?
4.	If it does more than the syllabus requires, is the result an improvement?
5.	Are the activities, contents and methods used in the course well-planned and executed?
6.	Has it been prepared specifically for the target examination?
7.	Do the course's methods help the students prepare for the exam?
8.	Is there a good balance between what the examination requires, and what the students need?
9.	Is there enough examination practice?
10.	Does the course contain useful hints on examination technique?” (Grant 1987:122-127).

Hutchinson and Waters (1987) set up their own checklist for objective and subjective analyses as well. Objective analysis, as it has already been pointed out, refers to the analysis of the course material. Let us have a look at the objective criteria which are grouped into the following categories:

•	”Audience:
•	Who is the material intended for? (Learners’ ages, gender, 	nationality, study or work specialism, status/role with respect to specialism, knowledge of English, knowledge of specialism, knowledge of the world, educational backgrounds, interests.)
•	Aims:
•	What are the aims of the materials?
•	Content:
•	What type(s) of linguistic description is/are used in the materials?
•	What language points do the materials cover? (What particular structures, functions, vocabulary areas?)
•	What is the proportion of work on each skill? Is there skills integrated work?
•	What micro-skills are covered in the material?
•	What kinds of texts are there in the materials? (For example manuals, letters, dialogues, reports, visual texts, listening texts.)
•	What is/are the subject-matter area(s), assumed level of knowledge, and types of topics in the materials? What treatment are the topics given? (For example medicine, biology; secondary school, first year college, post-graduate level of knowledge; hospital organisation, medical technology as types of topics; straightforward topic treatment, factual.)
•	How is the content organised throughout the materials? (Around language points, by subject-matter, by study skills, by a combination of means.)
•	How is the content organised within the units? (By a set pattern of components, by a variety of patterns.)
•	How is the content sequenced throughout the book? (From easier to more difficult, to create variety, to provide recycling, for example.)
•	How is the content sequenced within a unit? (From guided to free, from comprehension to production.)
•	Methodology:
•	What theory/ies of learning are the materials based on? 
•	What attitudes to/expectations about learning English are the materials based on?
•	What kinds of exercises/tasks are included in the materials? (For example guided or free, comprehension-orientated or production-orientated, ones that require one right answer or can be given many possible right answers, mechanical ones or problem-solving ones, role-plays, simulation, drama games.)
•	What teaching-learning techniques can be used with the materials? (Pair-work, small-group work, student presentations, for instance.)
•	What aids do the materials require? (Cassette recorders, overhead projectors, realia, wall charts, video.)
•	What guidance do the materials provide? (Lists of vocabulary and language-skills points, technical information, suggestions for further work, tests, and methodological hints.)
•	In what ways are the materials flexible? (Can they be begun at different points? Can the units be used in different orders? Can they be linked to other materials? Can they be used without some of their components?)
•	Others:
•	What is the price?
•	When and how readily can the materials be obtained?” (Hutchinson - Waters 1987:99-104).

Zalánné and Petneki (1997) claim that Hungarian students are rarely interviewed about the course-books they use although they tend to have very distinct opinions and expectations what a good course-book should contain. From students’ points of view two important questions have to be answered, namely the type of course-book that makes language learning effective and whether the course-book is interesting, entertaining enough. Course-books, as Zalánné and Petneki (1997) suggest, have to provide learners of different types with a sense of success, besides, they also have to make it possible for students to speak about themselves. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) point out those good materials should incorporate texts that prove to be interesting enough for students; they should also contain enjoyable activities and create opportunities in which students can express their own knowledge and skills. A well-organised course-book will definitely help learners gain some sense of progress and achievement.

Medgyes (1997) claims that although modern course-books can be regarded as the fruits of professional teamwork, their authors usually imagine their ideal readers as a class of 'international students' whose attitudes towards the world are rather neutral. For the sake of a good selling of their course-books, the authors tend to avoid uneasy topics such as religious, political or sexual issues. From this point of view these materials resemble one another very much.

Grant (1987) compares traditional course-books to those published under the influence of the communicative approach in order to get a clearer picture of the differences between the two types of materials. “These days the word communicative is on everyone’s lips. Almost every new textbook claims to be communicative” (Grant 1987:13). Traditional course-books emphasise the grammatical aspect of language and concentrate on accuracy rather than fluency. They contain more reading and writing activities than speaking or listening ones, thus students learning from such materials will probably find it difficult to achieve successful oral communication. ”The main problem with traditional textbooks is this: students work through them, sometimes for years, and often conscientiously. However, despite this, at the end of their studies they are still incapable of using the language: they may 'know' its grammar - the system - but they can't communicate in it” (Grant 1987:13). Traditional course-books often make use of a great deal of learners' mother tongue - to explain rules of grammar, for instance. “They are often attractive to some teachers, because they seem easy to use, and are highly examination-orientated” (Grant 1987:13). This attractiveness, however, involves the danger of depriving teachers of methodological challenges in the classroom.

Communicative course-books emphasise the importance of communicative functions and contain activities centred around skills using. Grant (1987) points out that these types of course-books reflect the authentic language of everyday life and encourage intensive cooperation among students, thus they make heavier demands on teachers’ organisational abilities. Students working with such materials are more likely to produce fluent oral communication than those learning from traditional course-books.

Grant (1987) enumerates some examples of communicative course-book activities and emphasises the importance of real-life purposes that make all tasks meaningful for students. Listening to some kind of announcement, for instance, at the airport, railway station or football stadium will sound very authentic and interesting as well. Speaking activities that involve information gaps in which some special points are to be found may also seem more practical and purposeful for learners than reading something because they are forced to do so. Communicative writing tasks involve form-filling, writing a postcard or a letter to a friend - activities that students will by all means have to perform in their everyday lives.
 
“Of course, few teachers believe that all language-learning activities have to be real-life. Some obviously non-communicative class activities have been found to be very useful for language learners. For instance, many students find exercises which require them to imitate the sounds and structure of the language very helpful. Such exercises are drills - they can be useful for learning, but are not in themselves communicative” (Grant 1987:15).

Grant (1987) suggests a quick way of telling how communicative a course-book is by giving a list of four tests. The first test investigates whether or not the language used in our material is unnatural (that is artificial) or taken from real-life. The second test examines the nature of textbook activities and the chance to come across them in real-life situations. With the help of the third test we can find whether our course materials emphasise accuracy rather than fluency. If some of the activities in our course-book accept the risk of students' making mistakes, then they can be regarded as communicative. The fourth test investigates whether the course material emphasises study or practice. Practice means that students are given enough time to use what they are already familiar with. ”Apply these four tests to a textbook, and you should get some idea as to how communicative it is” (Grant 1987:16).

Harmer uses the term ‘communication output’ to define the communicativeness of course materials by saying that it ”refers to activities in which students use language as a vehicle of communication, and where the students' main purpose is to complete some kind of communication task” (Harmer 1983:37).

Textbooks, as Harmer (1983) claims, rarely provide a balanced selection of activities and focus on presenting language and controlled practice. ”The lack of roughly-tuned input and communication output means that the teacher will have to look outside the book if he is to provide the balance that is so necessary. The need for balance is a methodological consideration since it is through this balance that students are exposed to a variety of learning experiences that will help them to acquire and learn English” (1983:220).
	
By ’roughly-tuned input’ he means that “students have to deal with language that is at a higher level than they are capable of producing” (Harmer 1983:35).

Harmer cleverly remarks that a course-book should not be considered as a bible but rather as an aid. ”The teacher will have to work out the best way to use the textbook: he should never let the textbook use him, or dictate the decisions he takes about the activities in which the students are going to be involved” (Harmer 1983:220).

Cunningsworth summarises the roles of course-books by stating that they ”identify the main role of the teacher as that of a guide or facilitator and a monitor. Essentially, the teacher is seen as guiding learners through the learning process, with support from the course-book, and monitoring student progress, correcting errors when this is useful for the learning process” (Cunningsworth 1995:110).
	
The average course package should at least be made up of a student’s book and a workbook, however, it is highly advisable to look for materials that consist of much more than that. Teacher's books, for instance, are also very important since they provide teachers with useful information about how to organise the course on the micro level as well as on the macro level. Medgyes (1995) also highlights the importance of teacher's books by saying that they can be considered as abstracts of a given curriculum provided they contain information about the authors' underlying pedagogical principles and their methodological suggestions. The total course package, as Cunningsworth (1995) claims, includes other components as well such as tests, additional reading and listening material, cassettes for listening and pronunciation, materials for video assisted learning, and, of course, materials for Computer-assisted Language Learning (CALL).

Cunningsworth further draws our attention to teacher’s books by saying that they “can give useful advice on the use of correction techniques and can also provide keys to exercises for the benefit of teachers who are not entirely confident of their English” (1995:114). These supplementary materials “can also offer regular tests which can be used to give students feedback on their progress, and also to give teachers information on which areas of language need to be revised and have yet to be consolidated” (Cunningsworth 1995:114).
Cunningsworth’s comprehensive list includes the following main points to look for in a teacher's book: 

•	”How comprehensive and flexible is the teacher's book?
•	Is it written so as to be comprehensible to less experienced teachers?
•	Is it suitable for native and non-native speaker teachers?
•	Is the underlying approach of the writers expressed clearly and explicitly, or does it have to be inferred?
•	Does the teacher's book provide enough detailed information on the language items to be taught?
•	Does the teacher's book give enough guidance on the teaching procedures advocated?
•	Is there enough cultural explanation to enable teachers unfamiliar with, for example, British lifestyles to interpret and exploit appropriately the situations portrayed in the course book?
•	Are there clear objectives for each unit/lesson?
•	Are new language items explained intelligibly in terms of their form and meaning/use?
•	Are there outline plans for each unit/lesson?
•	Are learning difficulties predicted and appropriate advice given?
•	How detailed is the information and advice given?
•	Can the contents of the teacher's book be related easily to the relevant sections of the student's book? 
•	Is advice given on informal monitoring of students and on using correction techniques?
•	Are keys to exercises and other activities provided?
•	Are there regular progress tests and advice on when and how to use them, and how to follow them up?
•	Does the teacher's book make a positive contribution to heightening and sustaining learner motivation?
•	Are teachers encouraged to note down their own ideas in the teacher's book?
•	Are there any guidelines for evaluating how well lessons went?” (Cunningsworth 1995:115).

The physical qualities of course materials are also important from the point of view of layout, which involves the number, arrangement, quality and size of the photos found in the books. No modern course-book can prove to be successful if it lacks visual presentation, which, is one of the most natural way of exploiting, interpreting and contextualising the meanings of words in foreign language teaching. Pictures in course materials can first of all direct students’ attention to the books, which is a fundamental element in language learning. They should, however, be strongly connected to the topics and/or language items students happen to work with within each unit. (Poór 2001)

The organization of course-books is another major aspect to consider during the evaluation process. Cunningsworth (1995) enumerates points such as continuity maintained in the materials, techniques used for recycling and reinforcement of learning, the route the learner is expected to take through the material (that is a predetermined one as opposed to optional routes), reference sections, index of language items, lists of new vocabulary, possibility for self-study, and a key to exercises. Recycling, for instance, as Cunningsworth (1995) refers to it, helps students meet the form and the sound of a language item in a number of different contexts, which will lead to their better understanding of meaning and use. 

14.5. Specific criteria to evaluate the content of course-books

From the point of view of language content Cunningsworth (1995) enumerates several aspects to check in course materials such as language form and language use, grammar, vocabulary, phonology, discourse, style and appropriacy, varieties of English. As far as form and meaning are concerned, “it is essential to reduce the learning load in the foreign language to assimilable units”, which “entails focusing on different aspects of the language separately” (Cunningsworth 1995:31). Course-books focus “selectively on different aspects of language form and language use. Language is analysed and broken down into small units for teaching purposes. An essential question for teachers and material writers is how far a language can be analysed and fragmented in this way without losing its nature and identity” (Cunningsworth 1995:31).

In order to get a clear picture of how a course-book deals with the teaching of grammar, some of Cunningsworth’s criteria might be worth taking into consideration (1995):
•	The grammar items included;
•	The presentation of grammar in small enough units for easy learning;
•	The extense of emphasising language forms;
•	The extense of emphasising language use (meaning);
•	The balanced of the treatment of form and use;
•	The relation and contrast of newly introduced items and items already familiar to the learners; the presentation of grammatical forms with than one meaning.

The primary role of presenting and teaching vocabulary cannot be questioned. Learning new words during a foreign language course is as important as using bricks when building a house. This building process, however, has to be made up of very refined steps. Simply loading our students' heads with long lists of words or definitions taken from dictionaries might not prove to be effective. Cunningsworth (1995) implies that teaching words in isolation or outside of context may also lead to little success. He advises to ”look for exercises which sensitize learners to the structure of the lexicon of English and to the various relationships that exist within it” (1995:38).

Cunningsworth (1995) says that good vocabulary development activities exploit semantic relations, situational relationships, collocations and relationships of form. His checklist for vocabulary contains the following criteria:

•	The vocabulary-learning material included in its own right:
–	Evidence for its prominence;
–	Its relation to the course: central or peripheral;
•	The amount of vocabulary taught;
•	The basis for the selection of vocabulary;
•	The distinction between active and passive vocabulary, or classroom vocabulary;
•	The ways of presenting vocabulary;
•	The sensitization of learners to the structure of the lexicon through vocabulary-learning exercises based on:
–	semantic relationships;
–	formal relationships;
–	collocations;
–	situation-based word groups;
•	The capacity of the material to enable students to expand their own vocabularies independently by helping them to develop their own learning strategies;

Teaching phonology is another major issue in foreign language pedagogy. Cunningsworth (1995) remarks that there should be no excessive emphasis on absolute correctness but rather an awareness of areas where typical misunderstandings occur. Cunningsworth adds that specialised terminology should be used only if it helps students analyse English and understand how it works. ”This principle applies equally to the use of the phonemic alphabet and we should see whether the course-book uses it and includes it for reference.” (Cunningsworth 1995:41-42). 

The checklist for phonology includes the following points (Cunningsworth 1995): 

•	The extense of thorough and systematic coverage of each of the following aspects of the phonological system covered:
–	articulation of individual sounds;
–	words in contact (e.g. assimilation);
–	word stress;
–	weak forms;
–	sentence stress;
–	intonation;
•	The extense of emphasising areas of pronunciation that are important to meet learners’ needs and help avoid misunderstandings;
•	The relation of pronunciation work to other types of work, such as listening, dialogue practice etc.; 
•	The extense of using terminology;
•	The comprehensibility of terminology used; 
•	The extense of using phonemic alphabet used;
•	The extense and ways of training students in learning phonemic alphabet;
•	The extense of using a diagrammatic system to show stress and intonation;
•	Availability of cassettes for pronunciation practice;
•	The provision of good models for learners of cassettes for pronunciation practice;

Teachers should provide their students with good models of real-life - that is authentic - English at all levels. It does not, of course, mean the aspects of phonology only but, for instance, the aspects of discourse as well. Motivation can be greatly influenced by students' recognising whether the language they are learning has any connection to the outside world, so it is absolutely important to teach them the different aspects of discourse in all areas. Cunningsworth (1995) remarks that course-books generally concentrate on the area of writing, whereas learning the rules of turn-taking in spoken conversation could be equally important. 
Cunningsworth’s checklist (1995) for discourse covers aspects such as conjunctives, other features of cohesion, paragraphing and organising written discourse, structure and conventions of spoken discourse, besides, he also suggests to check whether the examples of spoken and written discourse in the material provide good models for the learners, and whether the treatment of discourse is sustained throughout the whole course.

As far as style and appropriacy are concerned, Cunningsworth enumerates the following points to consider during the course-book evaluation process (1995):
•	The reference to appropriacy;
•	The teaching of appropriacy with reference to:
–	choice of grammar;
–	choice of vocabulary;
–	discourse structure;
–	pronunciation; 
•	Matching language style to social situation; 
•	The identification of situations or areas of language use where learners should be particularly sensitive to using appropriate styles;

Raising students’ awareness of the rules of style and appropriacy should be an integrated part of every language program so that students could best use their knowledge of English under different circumstances. Our students may have well-developed writing skills but it might not be enough if they do not know how to produce letters according to the different levels of formality, for example.

Cunningsworth (1995) draws our attention to the different geographical varieties of English, of which the two most important ones are British English and American English. He also refers to the so-called international English, which he defines as a ’lingua franca’ in the world of businessmen, scientists and many others of different mother tongues. It might be useful to check whether course-books of a certain variety contain clear references (including phonetic transcription as well) to other varieties. British English dictionaries, for example, often give the American equivalents of the meanings of a number of words. 

Skills development is another basic issue during a course evaluation process, which means that we have to check to what extent the materials concentrate on the development of and the balance among all four skills. Cunningsworth (1995) implies that ideal course-books include skills work that progresses in terms of complexity and difficulty, in line with the grammatical and lexical progression of the course. He also deals with the question of authenticity and suggests to check whether the presentation and practice activities include the integration of skills in realistic contexts; whether we can find authentic materials in our course-book; whether the semi-authentic materials found in the course-book can be regarded as representative of authentic discourse.
	
”Course-books focus on listening in two different ways. Firstly as part of general oral work, including dialogues and role play, where listening plays a secondary role compared with speaking. The second way in which course-books handle listening is in its own right, with recorded listening passages for comprehension, for extraction of information, as a lead-in to discussion, in conjunction with a reading text, etc.” (Cunningsworth 1995:67-68).
 
Students may find listening activities one of the most difficult parts in a language course so teachers (or course-book writers rather) have to make sure that the recorded materials are of perfect quality, the speed of speaking matches learners' level, and learners meet features such as elision, weak forms and assimilation, for instance.

Cunningsworth’s checklist for listening skills development contains the following points to take into consideration during the evaluation process:

•	The type(s) and quality of listening material of the course;
•	The extense of integrating the listening part in dialogue and conversation work;
•	Types of activities based on specific listening passages;
•	The extense and nature of the meaningful context the listening material is set in;
•	Types of  pre-listening tasks;
•	The quality of the recorded material in terms of:
–	sound quality;
–	speed of delivery;
–	accent;
–	authenticity.

In connection with speaking Cunningsworth remarks that “few courses treat speaking as a separate skill in the same way as listening, reading and writing. Speaking practice takes place through the oral presentation and practice of new language items, in dialogue work and in role play” (Cunningsworth 1995:69). However, course-books can provide students with carefully selected topics for discussion or communication (information gap) activities, thus making students take part in more or less realistic interactions. one should also look for specific strategies that help students manage their conversation.

Reading texts, as Cunningsworth (1995) notices, can be used for different purposes, such as developing students' reading skills and strategies, presenting or recycling grammar items, extending students' vocabulary, providing models for writing, giving information of interest to students, stimulating oral work. When analysing the reading content of a general course-book, one needs to consider:

•	The quantity of reading material;
•	The type of reading passages included;
•	The provision of reading passages introduced in a beginners’ course;
•	The extense and quality of help given to learners in developing good reading strategies;
•	The nature and range of exercises and activities linked to the reading passages; 

For this, one also has to check the lengths of the texts, their complexity concerning their grammatical and discourse structure, the range of vocabulary, their level of authenticity.

Cunningsworth adds a number of other points to reading text analysis. These are the following:

•	The appropriacy of the subject matter;
•	The types (genres) of text used and their appropriacy;
•	The nature of texts in terms of their being complete or gapped;
•	The ways the material helps comprehension by:
–	setting the scene
–	providing background information
–	giving pre-reading questions?
•	The types of comprehension questions;
•	The extense of the involvement of learner’s knowledge system int he material. 

As far as writing skill activities are concerned, Cunningsworth (1995) suggests that one should get a clear picture of:

•	how the materials deal with controlled writing, guided writing, free or semi-free writing;
•	the variety of writing tasks found in the course-book;
•	the extent to which the materials teach punctuation and spelling;
•	the emphasis on accuracy and different styles of written English;
•	how learners are encouraged to review and edit their written work;
•	a possible readership to whom students produce different sorts of texts.

Teaching the rules of communicative interactions should be considered as another important function of course materials. In order that students can best use their oral communicative skills, they have to be aware of basic points such as how other speakers can join a conversation, where a current speaker is most vulnerable to interruption, how to appoint someone to speak next, how to use and interpret the combination of linguistic, paralinguistic and kinesic cues (the use of eye contact, for example). “Course-books interested in equipping learners communicatively could provide models of and practice in turn-taking and interruption techniques” (Cunningsworth 1995:127-128).

Cunningsworth suggests a number of points to look at in connection with communicative interactions. The most important ones are the following:

•	The elements of genuine communication present int he course material:
–	unpredictability
–	opportunities to express real information, feelings, opinions etc.
–	opportunities for learners to structure their own discourse
–	need to formulate and use communication strategies
–	emphasis on co-operation between speakers in communicative interaction?
•	At the appropriate level, does the course-book include material that reflects the nature of communicative interaction, in respect of:
–	structure of discourse in interactions (including openers, confirmation checkers, pre-closers etc.)
–	complexity of structure
–	range of appropriate lexis
–	features such as fillers and incomplete sentences
–	roles of speakers in interactions;
•	The extense the material helps learners in the skill of turn-taking in conversations;
•	Examples of preferred sequences .” (Cunningsworth 1995:129).

From the point of view of content, as Cunningsworth (1995) advises, that one should clearly define the extent to which the content of our materials is selected according to structure, functions, situations or topics. It is also advisable to check whether the topics in the materials have relevance to reality and students' knowledge of the world; whether they are sophisticated enough in content; informative, humorous, amusing, controversial and challenging for learners. It might be interesting to find any reference to other subjects in our English language course materials, such as reference and connection to sports, mathematics, geography or history, for instance. 

Cunningsworth (1995) states that course-books with any subject content directly or indirectly communicate sets of social and cultural values. They constitute the so-called hidden curriculum, which is part of all educational programmes, but is never explicitly articulated. 

Further criterion for materials evaluation could be the aspect and measure of authenticity present. It can be evaluated as the authenticity of texts and realia included in the particular teaching resource, or the realistic behaviour of students when they are stimulated to act upon particular situations and the varieties of language. (Fenner – Newby 2000). All these aspects lead us to the question of cultural awareness raised and handled by course materials.

As far as the cultural considerations are concerned, one should pay attention to the following points:

•	”Are the social and cultural contexts in the course-book comprehensible to the learners?
•	Can learners interpret the relationships, behaviour, intentions etc. of the characters portrayed in the book?
•	Are women given equal prominence to men in all aspects of the course-book?
•	What physical and character attributes are women given?
•	What professional and social positions are women shown as occupying?
•	What do we learn about the inner lives of the characters?
•	To what extent is the language of feeling depicted?
•	Do the course-book characters exist in some kind of social setting, within a social	network?
•	Are social relationships portrayed realistically?” (Cunningsworth 1995:92).

Cunningsworth also (1995) encourages us to identify any possible unrepresentative negative stereotypes in our course materials, such as the social and/or mental ’inferiority’ of women. However, ”gender differences are not the only area of possible discrimination or unflattering portrayal” (Cunningsworth 1995:91). Other crucial areas might be that of ethnic origin, occupation, age, social class, disability or sexual and religious matters.

14.6. Basic principles for organising the content

Cunningsworth also takes grading into consideration for course materials evaluation. He defines grading as ‘the way in which the content is organized in the syllabus or course-book, involving the ordering of items and the speed with which the students progress through the course’ (Cunningsworth 1995:59). There are three important notions to be discussed within grading, namely sequencing, staging, and recycling. These notions have to by all means be kept in mind since they can help us estimate the progress students make by the end of a given course. 

”Sequencing refers to the order in which new items are taught, how the components fit with one another and how the range of language taught develops as learners progress through the course” (Cunningsworth 1995:59).

Recycling means that language items are best exploited if they are presented to learners on several occasions and in different contexts. Students learning about sports, for example, at a higher level meeting the word ’sabre’ might not remember it in a week's time, however, providing them with pictures of sabre-tooth tigers will probably help them store the word in their long-term memory. ”Staging refers to the way a course is divided into units, how much material each unit contains, the speed of progression and the size of the learning load” (Cunningsworth 1995:59-60). 

Cunningsworth (1995) also advises to check whether the course has been designed for students to take a linear or a cyclical route of progression. Linear progression involves a thorough presentation of a language item before moving on to the next, while cyclical progression means a regular and progressive returning to each item on several occasions later in the course. 

The basic documents for planning and organising the content and skills of the teaching and learning process are the curricula and syllabuses.

A curriculum makes general statements about language learning, learning purpose and experience, evaluation, and the role relationships of teachers and learners. It specifies learning items and contains suggestions about how these might be used in classes (Nunan, 1988).

The curriculum is a tool of decision making. It identifies learners’ needs and purposes; establishes goals and objectives; selects and grades content; organises appropriate learning arrangements and learner groupings; selects, adapts, or develops appropriate materials, learning tasks, assessment and evaluation tools. A curriculum has its classroom perspectives, i.e. the way how the intentions of curriculum planners have been translated into action in the form of teaching and learning processes. The assessment and evaluation perspective of the curriculum shows what students have learnt and failed to learn in relation to what had been planned and in addition, one can see what has been learnt but not planned though (Nunan 1988.).

A syllabus is based on the account and records of what actually happens at the classroom level as teachers and learners apply a given curriculum to their own situation. These accounts can be used to make subsequent modifications to the curriculum, so that the developmental process is ongoing and cyclical (Nunan, 1988).

One can distinguish product- and process-oriented syllabuses. Product-oriented syllabuses are those in which the focus is on the knowledge and skills which learners should gain as a result of education. Process-oriented syllabuses focus on the learning experience itself (Nunan, 1988).

Product oriented syllabuses can be classified as synthetic or analytic and grammatical or functional notional.

A synthetic syllabus suggests that different parts of language are taught separately and step by step, so that acquisition is a process of gradual accumulation of parts until the whole structure of language has been built up (Wilkins, 1976).

In analytic syllabuses learners are presented with chunks of language consisting of structures of varying degrees of difficulty. The (communicative) purpose of learning the language is in the focus (Nunan, 1988; Wilkins, 1976).

In a grammatical syllabus the input is selected and graded according to grammatical notions of simplicity and complexity. It suggests a rigid way of linear progression by introducing and mastering one item at a time before moving to the next one (McDonough, 1981).

A functional-notional syllabus take the functional and situational aspects of language use into consideration. Students and their communicative purposes are in the centre of attention. It sets realistic learning tasks, provides real-world language and leads to receptive activities before putting a pressure on students to perform (Finocchiaro and Brumfit, 1983).

Process-oriented syllabuses can be identified as procedural syllabus, task-based syllabus, content syllabus and natural approach.

Both procedural and task-based syllabuses share a concern with the classroom processes which stimulate learning. Both provide the specification of tasks and activities that learners will engage in class (Nunan, 1988).
In content syllabuses the language- and non-language-specific content which provides the point of departure for the syllabus is derived from various subject areas of the school curriculum. There is a non-linguistic rationale for selecting and grading the content (Nunan, 1988).

The goal of natural approach is communication skills. Comprehension precedes production. Subconscious acquisition is in focus. Production is not forced but facilitated to emerge (Krashen and Teller, 1983).

The nature of syllabuses is expressed in course materials that are all designed to meet the requirements of the National Core Curriculum and Frame Curricula which are both closely related to the Common European Framework of Reference.

Revision questions and tasks

1.	According to what criteria would you select a course-book?
2.	What are the stated objectives of good course materials? (areas of language, level, skills, target learners, etc.)
3.	What is the importance of recycling and sequencing in compiling course-books?
4.	What different components make up good materials? (books, tapes, etc.)
5.	Find out what kind of syllabus the materials at your hand follow? Structural? Functional? Other?
6.	How is new language presented in the book analysed? How is the meaning of items conveyed? Are new items related to what has been learned previously?
7.	Is there integration of the language skills in communicative activities or tasks? 

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APPENDIX

As it is impossible to give an all inclusive presentation of all the examinations available, let us examine one typical example of an international monolingual examination system of general language proficiency (Cambridge ESOL), a well-established bilingual examination of general language proficiency designed in Hungary (ITK ORIGO) and the new Hungarian school-leaving examination (Matura).

UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE ESOL (English for Speakers of other Languages) EXAMINATIONS

Cambridge ESOL exams are available at five levels: 
	Key English Test (KET) CEFR level A2
	Preliminary English Test (PET) CEFR level B1
	First Certificate in English (FCE) CEFR level B2
	Certificate in Advanced English (CAE) CEFR level C1
	Certificate of Proficiency in English (CPE) CEFR level C2

Preliminary English Test (PET) (Common European Framework (CEFR) Level B1)
The exam consists of three papers:
Paper 1 Reading/Writing 1 hour 30 mins 5 parts 35 Questions (Reading) 3 parts 7 Questions (Writing)
Paper 2 Listening 30 mins (approx,) 4 parts 25 Questions
Paper 3 Speaking 10-12 mins 4 parts 4 tasks

Tasks: 
Reading/writing: 	Part 1: (signs) four-option multiple choice questions – task
                               focus: understanding of real world notices
Part 2: (short texts) matching – five descriptions matched to
eight short texts – task focus: detailed comprehension of factual material, skimming and scanning
	Part 3: (longer factual text) true and false statements – task focus: scanning for information
Part 4: (longer text) multiple choice questions – task focus: understand global meaning, opinion and attitude
	Part 5 – multiple choice cloze –task focus: grammar and vocabulary
Listening:		Part 1: (short extracts) multiple choice questions –task focus:
  understanding meaning
Part 2: (longer factual monologue) – four-option multiple choice questions – identify specific information
Part 3: (longer factual monologue) – gap-filling – task focus: identify specific info and write it own
Part 4: (informal conversation) –true/false questions- task focus: understand global and specific  meaning
Speaking: 			Part 1: Conversation between candidates- personal
                                    information
	Part 2: situational role-play
	Part 3: picture description
	Part 4: discussion on the topic area represented by the picture

First Certificate in English (FCE) Common European Framework (CEFR) Level B2
The exam consists of five papers:
Paper 1 Reading 1 hour 15 mins 4 parts, 35 Questions
Paper 2 Writing 1 hour 30 mins  2 parts, 2 tasks
Paper 3 Use of English 1 hour 15 mins  5 parts, 65 Questions 
Paper 4 Listening 40 mins (approx), 4 parts, 30 Questions
Paper 5 Speaking 14-15 mins (approx),  4 parts,  4 tasks

Tasks:
Reading: 	Part 1: multiple matching - task focus: understand main points
				Part 2: four option multiple choice questions - task focus:
                          understand details
Part 3: gap filling with sentences removed from the text and given
     in a jumbled order - task focus: test structure
				Part 4: multiple matching – locate specific information
Writing:		Task 1: write a letter (informal/formal) based on input text
				Task 2: guided writing task chosen from 4 options
Use of
English: 		Part 1: modified multiple choice cloze - task focus: vocabulary
Part 2: modified open cloze - task focus: grammar and vocabulary
Part 3: key-word transformation - task focus: grammar and vocabulary
Part 4: error correction - task focus: grammar
Part 5: word formation: task focus: vocabulary
Listening 	Part 1: (short unrelated extracts) three-option multiple choice 
questions - task focus: understand main points
Part 2: ( monologue/dialogue) note taking/blank filling - task 
focus: understand gist and detail
Part 3: ( short related extracts) multiple matching task – understand
main points and detail
Part 4: (monologue/dialogue) true/false or multiple choice - task focus: main point, specific information
Speaking: 	Part1: interview –personal information
Part 2: comparison of two pictures – monologue
Part 3: collaborative task (2 candidates together) 
Part 4: discussion (2 candidates + examiner)

Certificate in Advanced English (CAE) Common European Framework (CEFR) Level C1
The exam consists of five papers:
Paper 1 Reading 1 hour 15 mins 4 parts, (approx) 50 Questions
Paper 2 Writing 2hours 2 parts, 2 tasks
Paper 3 Use of English 1 hour 30 mins 6 parts, 80 Questions 
Paper 4 Listening 45 mins (approx), 4 parts, 30-40 Questions
Paper 5 Speaking 15 mins (approx), 4 parts, 4 tasks

Tasks:
Reading: 	Part 1: multiple matching - task focus: scanning for specific
information
Part 2: gap filling with paragraphs removed from the text and given in a jumbled order - task focus: test structure
Part 3: four option multiple choice questions - task focus: understand details
				Part 4: multiple matching – locate specific information
Writing: 		Task 1: write a letter (informal/formal) based on input text
				Task 2: guided writing task chosen from 4 options
Use of
English:  		Part 1: modified multiple choice cloze - task focus: vocabulary
				Part 2: modified open cloze - task focus: grammar and structure
				Part 3: error correction - task focus: grammar
				Part 4: word formation: task focus: vocabulary
Part 5: register transfer complete a gapped text using information from the first text-. task focus: awareness of style, appropriateness
Part 6: Text completion with sentences/phrases chosen from a list- task focus: awareness of cohesion, coherence
Listening:  	Part 1: (monologue) sentence completion/note taking - task focus: understand specific information
Part 2: (monologue) sentence completion/note taking - task focus: understand specific information 
Part 3: (conversation) sentence completion – task focus: understand gist, specific info
Part 4: (short extracts) multiple matching task – identify speakers, attitudes, topics

Speaking: 	Part1: interview (2 candidates +examiner) - personal information
Part 2: monologue/interaction- comment on pictures – (2 candidates)
				Part 3: problem solving task (2 candidates together) 
				Part 4: discussion (2 candidates + examiner)

Certificate of Proficiency in English (CPE) Common European Framework (CEFR) Level C2
The exam consists of 5 papers:
Paper 1 Reading 1 hour 30 mins 4 parts, 40 Questions
Paper 2 Writing 2 hours 2 parts, 2 tasks
Paper 3 Use of English 1 hour 30 mins 5 parts, 44 Questions 
Paper 4 Listening 40 mins (approx) 4 parts, 28 Questions
Paper 5 Speaking 19-20 mins (approx) 3 parts, 3 tasks

Tasks:
Reading: 	Part 1:  three short multiple choice cloze texts - task focus: vocabulary
Part 2: (four short texts) four option multiple choice questions - task focus: understand main idea, details
Part 3: gap filling with paragraphs removed from the text and given in a jumbled order - task focus: test structure
Part 4: (long text) four option multiple choice questions - task focus: understand main idea, details
 Writing: 		Task 1: guided writing task based on input text
				Task 2: guided writing task chosen from 4 options
Use of
English:  		Part 1: modified open cloze - task focus: vocabulary and grammar
				Part 2: word formation: task focus: vocabulary, lexical pattern
Part 3: gapped sentences – find the common word missing from 3
sentences – task focus: lexis
Part 4: key-word transformation - task focus: grammar and structure
Part 5: reading comprehension with open-ended questions + summary writing
Listening:  	Part 1: (short extracts) three option multiple choice questions - task focus: understand gist, detail, opinion
Part 2: (monologue) sentence completion - task focus: understand specific information 
Part 3: (long text) four-option multiple choice questions– task focus: understand gist, detail
Part 4: (long text) three-way matching task – identify stated and non-stated opinion
Speaking: 	Part1: interview (2 candidates +examiner) –personal information
				Part 2: problem solving task (2 candidates together) 
				Part 3: monologue + discussion (2 candidates)

ITK ORIGO LANGUAGE EXAMINATIONS

ORIGO language  examinations are available at three levels: 
	Basic level (CEFR level B1)
	Intermediate level (CEFR level B2)
	Advanced level (CEFR level C1)
The examinations consist of two separate parts at each level: Oral exams and Written exams.
Candidates can decide to take the Oral and the Written part separately or together. The two parts are assessed separately.

Basic level language exam

The Oral exam (10mins) consists of 3 tasks
The Written exam (1 hour) consists of 3 topic related tasks

Tasks:
Speaking 	Part 1: interview (candidate+ examiner) - conversation on several topics
					Part 2: monologue –description of a picture
Part 3: situational role-play (candidate + examiner) – prompts given in Hungarian 
Written exam: 	Part 1: reading (long text) open ended questions in Hungarian – task focus: understand gist, detail
					Part 2: reading/writing –filling in a form – answering questions
					Part 3: guided writing task (letter)

Intermediate level language exam

The Oral exam consists of two papers
Paper 1: Speaking (15 mins)  3 tasks
Paper 2: Listening (approx 20mins) 1 task
Written exam (3 hrs 30 mins)   5 tasks

Tasks
Speaking 	Part 1: interview (candidate+ examiner) - conversation on several topics
					Part 2: monologue – description of a picture
					Part 3: situational role-play (candidate + examiner)
Listening:  (longer English text (monologue/dialogue) open ended questions in Hungarian to be answered in L1 – task focus: understand gist, detail, opinion
Writen exam: 	Part 1: four-option multiple choice test (50 items) - task focus: grammar
Part 2: translation of a Hungarian text into English – task focus: grammar, vocabulary, 
Part 3: guided composition writing  based on context and prompts given in Hungarian
Part 4 translation of an English text into Hungarian – task focus: translation skills
Part 5 Reading: (long text) – open ended questions in Hungarian –task focus: understand gist, detail, opinions

After filling in the multiple choice test (30 mins) candidates can decide in which order they complete the other four tasks.

Advanced level language exam

The Oral exam consists of two papers
Paper 1: Speaking (20 mins) 4 tasks
Paper 2: Listening (approx 20-25mins) 1 task
Written exam (4 hrs 30 mins) 5 tasks

Tasks:
Speaking 	Part 1: interview (candidate+ examiner)- conversation on several topics
					Part 2: monologue –description of a picture
					Part 3: situational role-play (candidate + examiner)
					Part 4: summary and interpretation of a recorded Hungarian text
 
Listening:  (longer English text (monologue/dialogue) open ended questions in Hungarian to be answered in L1 – task focus: understand gist, detail, opinion

Written exam: 	Part 1: four-option multiple choice test (50 items)- task focus: lexis, grammar
Part 2: summary of a Hungarian text in English – task focus: grammar, vocabulary, cohesion,
Part 3: guided composition writing based on context and prompts given in Hungarian
Part 4 translation of an English text into Hungarian – task focus: translation skills
Part 5 Reading: (long text) –open ended questions in Hungarian –task focus: understand gist, detail, opinions

After filling in the multiple choice test (30 mins) candidates can decide in which order they complete the other four tasks.

Hungarian school-leaving examinations (Matura)

In 2005 a new school-leaving examination system was introduced in secondary education in Hungary. The unique feature is that similarly to the British school-leaving examinations, there are two levels of performance: the so called “Intermediate” and “Advanced” level. (it must be mentioned that these terms are misleading in this case, because intermediate level should represent B2 and the advanced level C1 CEFR level, but in the Matura exam the actual “intermediate level” performance corresponds to A2/B1 and the “advanced level” performance corresponds to B2) The new Matura is completely different from the earlier knowledge-based examinations, and focuses on the assessment of competences to use the acquired knowledge. This is even more transparent in the case of languages. The main aim of the English language Matura examination is to assess and measure communicative language competence and shows resemblance in its structure and task types to Cambridge ESOL examinations. The exams have an oral and a written part at both levels, and they represent the concept of aggregate proficiency, as all the four basic language skills (reading comprehension, listening comprehension, speaking and writing) are tested, and there is also a separate Use of English component, as well, which measures grammatical and lexical competence. The test papers contain a great variety of task types, and the actual set of tasks may be slightly different from year to year.

Reading Comprehension is measured by four tasks at both levels, which may be dual choice, multiple choice, matching (titles to paragraphs, expressions to definitions, opinions to persons), gap filling, multiple choice cloze, banked cloze, or open ended questions requiring short answers. 

Grammatical  and lexical competence is measured by three or four tasks depending on the level, using different task types, which may be  multiple choice, banked or modified open cloze, word formation (in text), sentence transformation, rearrangement of words to form a sentence, and error identification. 

Listening Comprehension is tested by three tasks at both levels, candidates can listen to the texts twice, and the possible  task types are: multiple choice, matching (statements to persons, pictures to text), sequencing events, information transfer (filling in tables, charts), filling in forms, gap-filling at sentence level, open ended questions requiring short answers.

Writing ability is assessed by two tasks at both levels, and the possible guided writing tasks are: writing a message, a postcard, an invitation, an informal or formal letter at “intermediate” level, and writing a letter (formal/informal) or an article based either on an input text (letter, advertisement) or using visual prompts (graphs, pictures, tables) at “advanced” level. 

At the Oral examination the test takers have to perform three tasks at both levels, but the content is different. At “intermediate” level there is a conversation with one of the interlocutors, in which three different topics are discussed, then comes a situational role-play, and in the third task the test taker has to give a monologue based on two pictures and verbal prompts. At the “advanced” level the first conversation task involves the discussion only one, but a more abstract topic, which is followed by a debate between the candidate and the interlocutor, in which the candidate has to express and justify his/her agreement/disagreement with a given statement. In the third task the candidate gives a monologue based on visual input (pictures, graphs) expressing his/her opinion.